Within the cultural-historical approach the process of memory development is considered as a transition from direct memory, inherent in animals, to arbitrarily regulated, mediated signs, specifically human forms of memory.

Vygotsky reveals the problems of sociality and the mediation of natural memory, characteristic of a small child or a primitive person. Proving that the transformation of memory from a natural into a higher mental function begins when a person moves from using his memory as a physiological ability to dominating it through sign systems. Moreover, at first, ready-made signs that are available in culture are used (for example, a mother, sending her son to the store, gives him a leaflet with a list of necessary purchases), and then a person learns to create effective mnemonic sign means for himself. The "growing" of the sign marks the transition from the external development of memory to the internal. At the same time, the very structure of memory changes, and how a person uses it.

Research into the development of higher forms of memorization was carried out by Leontiev using the technique of double stimulation. In this technique, subjects are offered two sets of stimuli. The memorization of one row is a direct task (stimuli-objects), while the second row represents the stimuli-means by which memorization should be carried out. Children of different ages and teenagers were offered a list of 15 words and a set of picture cards. The instruction was: “When I say the word, look at the cards. Choose and set aside a card that will help you remember the word later. In the control series of the experiment, the cards were not provided to the subjects. The results of the study are marked on the graph (parallelogram of memory development). The bottom line is that, starting from preschool age, the rate of development of memorization with the help of external means (cards) significantly exceeds the rate of direct memorization (the graph that fixes the efficiency of memorization with cards has a steeper shape). On the contrary, starting from school age, the increase in indicators of externally direct memorization proceeds faster than the increase in externally mediated memorization. According to Leontiev, behind the external disregard for cards (external means of memorization) against the background of the ever-increasing efficiency of memorization, there is a hidden process of "rotating" an external tool, turning it into an internal, psychological tool. The principle of "memory parallelogram" is an expression of the general law that the development of higher sign forms of memory proceeds along the line of transformation of externally mediated memorization into internally mediated memorization. Thus, in the course of the formation of memory as a higher mental function, both in ontogenesis and in sociogenesis, memory becomes, firstly, mediated by various sign systems (primarily speech), and secondly, voluntary and consciously regulated. A person ceases to obey his imperfect memory, and begins to manage it, organize the process of memorization and recollection, structure the memorized content.

Definition, types, functions of attention. Attention in the classical psychology of consciousness and its modern understanding. Basic properties and their experimental studies. Attention disorders.

Attention is the focus of human consciousness on objects and phenomena of the surrounding and inner world. Direction should be understood as the selective nature of mental activity. Attention is an important condition for the success of cognition. In the waking state, a person is always attentive. He can be inattentive only to a separate object or phenomenon. Strong stimuli interfere with attention. Types of attention:

1) Natural - given from birth. Begins to function from 1 month of life.

2) Social - acquired in the process of life. A person has learned to manage this type of attention using the means developed by society.

3) Involuntary - directed to an object due to interest without the participation of will and consciousness.

4) Arbitrary - organized, regulated by will and consciousness. Strong stimuli interfere with this attention, weak ones strengthen the dominant.

5) Post-voluntary - sometimes it happens that a person has to force himself to do some business without much interest, then interest appears.

6) External - attention to the objects of the external world.

7) Internal - the object is in our inner world.

Attention functions:

1. The function of control and regulation of activity - with an attentive attitude to any object, this object becomes the center of our consciousness, the rest is perceived weaker, the reflection becomes clear, clear, and thoughts are held in consciousness until the activity is completed.

2. Selectivity - a person chooses only the information that interests him or he needs at the moment.

3. Purposefulness - a person holds his attention or switches it from one action to another for as long as necessary to achieve the goal.

4. Activation - high performance and quality, controlled consciously, for a long time.

Attention properties:

1. Stability - maintaining attention for a long time at a more or less constant level. Distractibility is a periodic weakening of attention. The more focused, the less distractible. The more difficult the task, the deeper our attention.

2. Concentration - the degree of focus on one thing while distracting from everything else. There are always short-term changes in the degree of intensity - fluctuations in attention.

3. Distribution - the simultaneous retention of attention on several different objects.

4. Switchability - the ability to quickly transfer attention from one object to another. It is switchability that is the flip side of distributability.

All these properties are qualitative characteristics of attention. Quantitative characteristic: the amount of attention is the number of objects that a person is able to keep in the sphere of his attention (an adult has 3-9 objects). Volume is an untrained property of attention.

Attention is also expressed in gestures, facial expressions, posture, eye contact, etc. With good concentration of attention, we may not notice what is happening around us.

The study of attention. The most accessible method is the observation of human activity. The use of bourdon tests - proofreading samples. Violation of attention - absent-mindedness, due to the weakening of the power of concentration. The alternation of visual and auditory and motor modalities of perception helps to overcome absent-mindedness.

Attention develops naturally as we grow up and gain life experience. This development occurs in healthy people from birth to graduation. The artificial development of attention is an accelerated process associated with the performance of special exercises.

great attention L.S. Vygotsky devoted to the study of eidetic memory as one of the stages in the development of human memory. This memory is characterized by the fact that the child can remember any picture accurately and for a sufficiently long time with the smallest details. This ability is called "eidetic memory". In human phylogeny, this stage in the development of memory can be correlated with the memory of primitive man. Natives, for example, can unmistakably recognize the trail of any animal known to them and determine in which direction it ran, and these people also perfectly remember the area (topographic memory). For Indians, for example, it is enough to see the landscape once in order to remember it in the smallest detail and not get lost there. Likewise “Livingston celebrates the outstanding memory of the natives of Africa. He observed it among the messengers of the leaders, who carry very long messages over vast distances and repeat them word for word” (L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria). Accordingly, they do not have a written language. In the words of Engels: “man is used by memory, but does not dominate it”, but rather it takes over him. “She prompts him with unreal fictions, imaginary images and constructions. It leads him to the creation of mythology, which is often an obstacle to the development of his experience, obscuring the objective picture of the world with subjective constructions ”(L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria).

And, as soon as a person was able to "bridle" his memory, becoming its master and creating auxiliary means, he was able to move to a higher level of development. With the advent of writing and, a little earlier, a certain symbolism, the development of a more perfect memory began. Initially, mediation took place with the help of improvised means: notches on sticks or knots on clothes, but these simple techniques later became more sophisticated and complex, for example, quipu used in ancient Peru, in ancient China, Japan and some other countries . Quipu- these are messages made with the help of knots, which, tied in a certain sequence and in a special way, carry messages. With their help, before the invention of writing, people communicated, shared information and important news. It is the discovery of symbols as a way to simplify memorization that can be considered the evolution of memory. “Claude considers the mnemonic stage to be the first stage in the development of writing. Any sign or object is a means of mnemonic memorization” (L.S. Vygotsky, A.R. Luria).

Research that A.N. Leontiev cites in his article "The development of higher forms of memorization" aimed at proving the development of memorization through the process of mediation.

A.N. Leontiev describes a number of experiments that were carried out on children from 4 to 13 years old and on students. Their essence was as follows: the subjects were dictated words, after the first series the children simply had to repeat the words that were spoken, in the second and third series they were offered additional material - picture cards, the content of which in no way coincided with the list of dictated words during these sessions.

While listening to a series of words, it was suggested to choose a card that, in his opinion, would help to remember a certain word: “When I say the word, look at the cards, choose and set aside a card that will help you remember the word” (A.N. Leontiev ).

After analyzing the results, several facts became apparent:

Firstly, the third series in children 4-5 years old differs very little from the second (the indicators of the third are slightly higher), but the next age group of children (6-7 years old) showed better results, which proves that the rapid development of indirect, logical memory.

Secondly, children from 7 to 12 years old also showed good results, but the rate of development of their memory is somewhat lower compared to the previous age group. The difference between the second and third series becomes less noticeable and, as it were, “smoothes out”.

From this we can draw the following conclusion: “starting from preschool age, the rate of development of memorization with the help of external means significantly exceeds the rate of development without the help of cards” (A.N. Leontiev).

If we present these changes in a graphical form, then the graphical form will look like a parallelogram: “Both lines (the second and third series) of development are curves, two curves converging in the lower and upper limits” (A.N. Leontiev).

In general, this experiment shows how memory develops in the process of growing up, how it transforms from eidetic (discussed above) into logical using signs-symbols that simplify the process of remembering. “Before becoming internal, these stimuli-signs appear in the form of stimuli acting from outside. Only as a result of a peculiar process of their “growing” do they turn into internal signs, and thus from the originally direct memorization grows the highest, “logical” memory ”(A.N. Leontiev).

graduate work

1.4 Cultural-historical approach to the study of memory in the works of L.S. Vygotsky and A.N. Leontief

In the book "Etudes on the History of Behavior" (1930) L.S. Vygotsky and A.R. Luria for the first time in the history of the study of memory used the idea of ​​comparing the data of the phylo- and ontogenesis of memory - the comparative genetic principle of research. Speaking about the memory of primitive man, the authors note its originality, expressed in concreteness, photographicity. These properties find their counterpart in the child's memory when he is in the early stages of his development. However, L.S. Vygotsky notes that work and social life significantly transforms the psyche of a developing person. L.S. Vygotsky explains this by the fact that these forms of human activity are built on the use of means-signs - artificially created stimuli, with the help of which directly occurring processes of the psyche are transformed into indirect mental activity. According to L.S. Vygotsky, the highest mental forms of memory are initially born in social communication between people. According to L.S. Vygotsky, the peculiarity of primitive memory lies in the fact that a person uses it, but does not dominate it, that is, memorization at this stage of development is spontaneous, uncontrolled. Gradually, the functional foundations of memory are being transformed. So, L.S. Vygotsky talks about the emergence of various simple methods of mediated memorization in the form of tying a knot in memory or notches that were used by a person to transfer information to other people.

In the most general form, the mechanism of mediation was described by L.S. Vygotsky based on the use of the famous scheme: A - X - B, where A and B are stimuli, and X is a psychological tool (a knot on a scarf, a mnemonic diagram, and other attributes of culture). In such a combination of stimulus and reaction, through a mediating link, “mechanism in the understanding of the psyche was overcome and the psychic world of the subject in-itself-and-for-itself was opened up into the world for-the-other; this combination, representing both the culture and the subject, made it possible to establish the qualitative originality of the HMF.

According to L.S. Vygotsky, there is a sign function of auxiliary stimuli - it is precisely due to it that a new relationship is formed between mental processes, mediation, which provides the orientation of the subject in the activity he masters. “The use of auxiliary means - signs that act as external ones, begins to modify the internal processes of memory. Actually, "natural memory" is gradually moving along the path of losing its natural character and becoming "cultural memory". It is this culturally conditioned development of memory that was the foundation for the development of language, writing and other complex sign systems in the history of mankind.

Changes in the structure of the psychological process during memorization were observed by L.S. Vygotsky and his followers in experiments on double stimulation, where one row of stimuli performed "the function of the object (material) of the subject's activity, the other - the function of signs with the help of which this activity is organized" . The most thorough results of using this method are presented in the experiments of A.N. Leontiev. His book The Development of Memory (1931) was one of the first attempts at an experimentally detailed substantiation of the social nature of memory development. The main task of the work was to study the processes of mediation "simultaneously as a source and criterion for evaluating the ontogenetic development of memory" . Describing the features of memory development, A.N. Leontiev says that, when a person interacts with his social environment, he also restructures his own behavior, this is manifested in the transformation of “interpsychological” (interpersonal) processes into “intrapsychological” (intrapersonal) processes.

Memorization based on internal mediation is the highest form and the last stage in the development of human memory. Its appearance means that the use of past experience takes on a new form - "by gaining dominance over our memory, we free all our behavior from the blind power of the automatic, spontaneous influence of the past" .

The process of memory development from elementary to its most complex forms is also understood by A.N. Leontiev and as a change in the relationship of this mental function to the personality as a whole, as a process of human socialization. And in this regard, he puts forward the idea of ​​the educability of memory in ontogeny, which indicates the possibility of developing and implementing a specially designed memory formation program. A.N. Leontiev talks about how important it is, taking into account the patterns in which mental processes develop, to promote the development of higher forms of memory in students.

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There is no single definition of memory in psychology. Memory - this is the ability of the subject to retain certain contents for some time, which are the results of memorization processes, which can be judged by the results of the processes of updating these contents.

Types: motor, affective, figurative, verbal-logical (Blonsky). Autobiographical memory, which includes images of memories that capture episodes associated with significant events of a person that determined his life path. (Squier) - procedural, declarative. (Tulving) - semantic, episodic. Explicit, implicit.

Depending on the storage time of information, there are: - ultra-short (for 1-2 seconds); - short-term (20-30 sec); - long-term (unlimited time).

Memory processes: arbitrary (there is a conscious goal) and involuntary - there is no goal to remember the material, but memorization still occurs. Processes for updating stored content: reproduction - a process by which stored content can be updated again in the form of images; recognition is the process by which a person perceives certain contents of conscious experience as already known to him.

Memory functions: the idea of ​​time and the ability to navigate in it; the possibility of learning; possibility of personal identity.

Amnesia is loss of memory. It occurs as a result of brain injuries or concussions, brain hemorrhages, stress, etc. Types of amnesia: general; private. General amnesias are: complete, incomplete, temporary, permanent, intermittent, progressive (according to the law of regression or reverse development), retrograde, anterograde, anteroretrograde + Korsakoff's syndrome. There are also deceptions of memory: paramnesia, confabulation, cryptomnesia.

Associationist approach (associations- the relationship between the phenomena of the psyche or behavior under certain conditions). The conditions may be: the proximity of the associated phenomena in space; or in time; the presence of similarities between them; or contrast difference. Ebbinghaus on meaningless material, methods were developed: memorization; anticipation; saving; recognition. Results: Using such material and methods, Ebbinghaus deduced a number of patterns: the amount of short-term memory and on average is 6-7 elements for meaningless syllables; meaningful and well-structured material is remembered better than meaningless; edge effect: elements of a row located along its edges are better remembered than those in the middle. Yost established the effect of distribution. Ebbinghaus revealed the pattern of forgetting learned meaningless material by constructing a forgetting curve (using the savings method). Pierron showed that the process of forgetting meaningless material significantly depends on the organization of the process of learning it. The phenomenon of reminiscence was discovered, contradicting the results of Ebbinghaus. Reminescence is a phenomenon opposite to forgetting, consisting in the fact that over time the subject improves the efficiency of reproducing previously memorized material (Ballard's experiment).

Bartlett (constructivist approach) memory research in everyday life. sequential memorization procedures (playing a broken phone). Most of the information is not remembered; generalization is growing; new elements appear.

Activity approach - memory problem. Zinchenko experiment, testing the hypothesis that a person involuntarily memorizes in b O To a greater extent, the material that is associated with the direction of its activities. A set of cards classifying objects or ordering numbers. Smirnov - late employees.

Freud reluctance motive. It is found out by means of a method of free associations.

Levin with situational memorization of material, forgetting intentions.

Smirnov- mnemonic orientation (unconscious setting, not a goal). The unconscious occurs when a person performs some activity that, in order to achieve the desired result, unconsciously involves memorizing certain material. Istomina's experiment, the subjects are children, 3 different conditions for completing the task (the motivation is different).

The development of memory and attention.

Memory. Vygotsky - in the context of the theory of k-historical development of the psyche and human behavior. The central concept is the concept of HMF, which only a person has. Vygotsky points out 4 properties of the HMF: mediated; social; arbitrary; systemic.

The process of transition of an interpsychic function into an intrapsychic one is internalization.

From the position of cultural-historical theory, the development of memory is considered by Vygotsky as the development of one of the many HMFs and occurs according to certain universal laws for all functions. This approach was the basis for the A.N.Leontiev research on the development of memory in ontogeny. The subjects are children from 4 to 16 years old and adults - students 22-28 years old.

In series 1, a series of 15 words was offered for memorization with an interval of 3 seconds. After 1-2 min. after presentation, they were asked to reproduce this row. For each, the number of reproduced words was counted. In series 2, 20 picture cards were given. Then the same series of 15 words was presented and after 1-2 minutes. the experimenter showed a card, and the subject had to name the word that he remembered. The number of correctly reproduced words was counted. As in the Vygotsokgo-Sakharov method, the Leontiev method had two rows of stimuli: stimuli-objects, stimuli-means - a double stimulation technique.

The main results: 1. In both series, the productivity of memorization in preschoolers turned out to be approximately the same (they still do not know how to use cards as means); 2. In schoolchildren under 12 years of age, there is a maximum difference in the results of the two series (a clear advantage of externally mediated memorization compared to natural memorization); 3. In adults, the productivity of memorization in both series increases, but especially in the series without cards. Subjective reports indicated that in episode 1 they often used internal aids to memorize words. Conclusion: the development of human memory obeys the general law of the development of the HMF, according to which "the development of higher significative forms of memory proceeds along the line of externally mediated memorization into internally mediated memorization."

Attention. Vygotsky - the development of attention in the context of the general theory of the HMF and the development of attention is subject to certain universal laws of the development of the HMF. Leontiev also conducted research on the material of attention in order to find empirical support for Vygotsky's concept of the laws of development of the HMF. The subjects were children aged 4 to 16 and adults aged 22 to 28. In episode 1, a game of "questions and answers" like a child's game (don't say yes or no, don't buy black and white). Questions were asked, some of which suggested the name of flowers. The subjects had to answer without thinking as quickly as possible. However, they did not have to name two specific colors and one color twice. Among the questions there were 7 provocative, aimed at violating these two points of the instruction. There are 8 color cards in series 2 that could be used to achieve success. Main results: 1. Preschoolers in both series have approximately the same low performance indicators of the task. They still do not know how to successfully focus and keep their attention on the execution of instructions, they do not use cards as useful means for solving a problem, but simply play with them; 2. For schoolchildren under 12 years of age, the greatest difference in the two series. They actively use answer cards, putting aside forbidden colors and already named ones. This allows you to better focus and keep attention on the instructions; 3. In adult subjects, the performance indicators for completing the task are maximum and they are converging. They do not use cards, because they no longer need external means for memorization. They have sufficiently developed internally mediated memorization, which means internally mediated attention.

Galperin attention is an independent form of mental activity that performs the function of mental and reduced control over the progress of any mental action. Halperin's concept of the phased formation of mental actions for the purposeful formation of human attention. Research Kabylnitskaya. A certain clear plan for working on mistakes - 7 points, which was written on the cards. The card acts as an external means of organizing the child's activities. Thanks to the plan, control over the implementation of activities becomes external and deployed. At first, the children no longer held the card, but said the points aloud, then they whispered the points, then they spoke to themselves, and at the end they worked on the mistakes in the internal plan.

Memory as the highest mental function (L.S. Vygotsky) and its experimental studies (A.N. Leontiev). Memory development.

Response plan

Memory is like a WPF.

Memory development.

Answer:

Memory is like a WPF.

Human memory can be defined as psycho-physiological and cultural processes that perform functions in life: remembering, storing and reproducing information. Memory is the basis of human abilities, is a condition for learning, acquiring knowledge, the formation of skills and abilities. Without memory, the normal functioning of either the individual or society is impossible. Subhuman organisms have only two types of memory: genetic and mechanical.

A person has three types of memory, much more powerful and productive than animals: arbitrary, logical and mediated. The first is connected with a wide volitional control of memorization, the second with the use of logic, the third with the use of various means of memorization, mostly presented in the form of objects of material and spiritual culture.

L.S. Vygotsky believed that, while developing historically, enriching his material and spiritual culture, a person developed more and more perfect means of memorizing and storing information, the most important of which is writing. Thanks to various forms of speech - oral, written, external, internal - a person turned out to be able to subordinate memory to his will, reasonably control the course of memorization, manage the process of storing and reproducing information. Memory in process of development came closer and closer to thinking. The attitude “to think means to remember” with age in a child is replaced by an attitude according to which memorization itself is reduced to thinking: “to remember or remember means to understand, comprehend, think”.

Research by A.N. Leontiev.

A.I.Leontiev conducted special studies of direct and indirect memorization in childhood. On the basis of experiments, he deduced a curve for the development of direct and indirect memorization. This curve, called the "parallelogram of memory development," shows that while in preschool children memorization is mainly direct, in adults it is mainly indirect. Speech plays a significant role in the development of memory, so the process of improving a person’s memory goes hand in hand with the development of his speech.

Memory development.

Memory grows and develops during childhood, peaking at age 25, but then begins to decline slowly. However, memory can easily be improved through exercise and education. This is evidenced by the fact that adults who systematically engage in mental work and, therefore, constantly exercise their mediated memory, if desired and with appropriate mental work, can very easily memorize material, while possessing at the same time a surprisingly weak mechanical memory.

The types of human memory can be classified in two ways:

1. By the time of saving the material:

instant- memory - an image, a complete residual impression;

short-term- from the instant, only that which is realized gets into it;

operational– storage of information for a certain specified period;

long-term- for an unlimited period, reproduction requires thinking and willpower;

genetic- information is stored in the genotype, transmitted and reproduced by inheritance, the only one that cannot be influenced.

2. According to the predominant analyzer in the processes of memorization, preservation and reproduction:

visual- preservation and reproduction of visual images;

auditory- memorization and reproduction of sounds (musical, speech);

motor- memorization with accuracy of complex, diverse movements;

emotional- memory for experiences;

tactile, olfactory, gustatory- Their role is reduced to the satisfaction of biological needs.

According to the nature of the participation of the will in the processes of memorization, memory is divided into involuntary and arbitrary. In the first case, such a memorization that occurs automatically without much effort on the part of a person. In the second case, such a task is necessarily present, and the process itself requires strong-willed efforts.

In everyday life, a person uses two main types of memory: short-term and long-term. Short-term memory plays an important role in human life. Thanks to it, the largest amount of information is processed, unnecessary is immediately eliminated and potentially useful remains. Therefore, there is no information overload of long-term memory with unnecessary information.

From early childhood, the process of developing a child's memory goes in several directions. Firstly, mechanical memory is constantly being supplemented and replaced by logical memory. Secondly, direct memorization eventually turns into indirect, associated with the active and conscious use of various mnemonic techniques and tools for memorization and reproduction. Thirdly, involuntary memorization, which dominates in childhood in an adult, turns into an arbitrary one.

In subhuman organisms, genetic and mechanical. In the chela - arbitrary (associated with a wide volitional control of memorization), logical(using logic) and mediated(using various means of memorization, mostly presented in the form of objects of material and spiritual culture).

logical memory- memory, built on the selection and memorization of the logical-semantic (causal) relationship between the memorized elements.

mechanical memory- memory aimed at memorizing elements that are not associatively or logically related to each other.