Solanaceae family (Solanaceae). Lecture fruits of vehicles in the history of the Russian language of the xviii-xx centuries

Elena Verkhovtseva

A series of educational events in the preparatory group: “From carriage to rocket. From the distant past to the present.

Ulyanovsk

Educational event in the preparatory group on the topic: "On the seas, on the waves."

Software content.

1. Deepen children's ideas about water transport (distinguish it according to its purpose, group it according to common features). To reveal the importance of water transport in human life.

2. To acquaint with the first boats, other means of transportation on water (inflatable skins, rafts, logs, boats, etc.). To trace the history of shipbuilding: from small boats, one-trees, to modern motor ships and nuclear-powered ships, submarines.

3. Cause cognitive interest in the history of navigation. To introduce children to pirates and Vikings, who in ancient times were engaged in robbing merchant ships. To acquaint children with the symbols that existed in ancient times on pirate ships and Viking ships.

4. Consolidate existing knowledge about sea and river transport as a means of transportation, transportation of goods and use for other purposes.

5. Activate the vocabulary of children: dugout boat, boat, sails, skerries, schooner, galleys, boarding, pirates - corsairs, privateers, privateer ship, Vikings, drakar, sailors, steamer, motor ship, nuclear icebreaker, tanker, submarine, etc. d.

Preliminary work.

Conversations on the topics: "Transport", "Peter I - the founder of the Russian fleet."

"Who to be?" (marine professions, "Gentlemen of Fortune".

Conversation-game: “Who would you take with you on the ship?”, “Things and items needed on the voyage”.

Acquaintance with the history of the legendary cruiser "Aurora". Learning the song of V. Ya. Shainsky “Cruiser Aurora”.

Examination of illustrations of ancient and modern modes of transport.

Excursion to the river port: acquaintance with the work of the river port, observation of boats, boats, cargo barges, passenger ships.

Reading a poem: M. Yu. Lermontov "Sailboat", M. V. Isakovsky "Go beyond the seas-oceans."

Reading excerpts from books about sea travelers. View a video of a story on a given topic.

Learning songs about sailors with children.

Learning poems with children on the marine theme.

Reading the story "Flies high, but sees deep."

Examination of the painting by I. E. Repin "Barge Haulers on the Volga".

Listening to the Russian folk song "Volga".

Learning the song “There Lived a Brave Captain” (I. O. Dunaevsky).

Proverbs and sayings about the Motherland, work, friendship.

Guessing riddles on the topic: "Water transport."

Learning poems about ships.

Board game (puzzles) "Sailboat".

Examining the exhibits of the group museum.

Manual labor: "Steamboats".

Application on the theme "On the seas, on the waves."

Drawing: "Sailboats on the Volga", "Transport of the future".

Making crafts from waste material (cork) "Water transport".

Album design with illustrations, children's works, photographs, songs, poems on the theme "Blue Sea".

Learning a dance on a sailor theme "Apple".

Games: "School of Sailors", "Question - Answer", "Experts".

Mobile game "The sea worries once."

Game-journey: "Submariners".

Didactic game "Know the profession."

Production of attributes for a role-playing game (sea binoculars, caps). Role-playing game "Journey along the Volga".

Interaction with family:

Cooking with mom dishes "Navy Pasta".

Involving parents in the production of attributes for the role-playing game "We are going along the Volga".

Involving parents in the design of the illustrated album "Blue Sea", "Our army is strong."

Joint design of the plot picture on the theme "Sailboats on the Volga".

Involving parents in the design of a mini-museum in a group (designing boats, sailboats, frigates made of plastic, plywood).

Involving parents in the production of attributes for the role-playing game "Journey along the Volga" (steering wheel, binoculars, spyglass, compass).

Watching feature films by parents and children: "Pirates of the Caribbean", "Children of Captain Grant" (the song "There once was a brave captain") and cartoons: "Peter Pen", "Treasure Island", "Ship" (song "Chunga-Changa", "Captain Vrungel".

Material.

World of Ships book, Children's Encyclopedia, layouts, illustrations, map, board game with Treasure Island tokens, toy book with Pirates stickers, cocked hat, spyglass, bottle with location map hidden treasures.

1. Educator: “Guys, today we will again go on a trip in a time machine. But, the journey will not be easy, and therefore, I suggest putting on life jackets and taking life buoys. Where do you think we will go? (Children's answers.) Tell me, what else do you need to take on the road? (Game "Collect a backpack".)

Go boldly on your way

Um, don't forget your ingenuity.

Many difficulties to be overcome

We need to be in time with our friends everywhere.

We are going to the past of water transport. Here is our time machine, take your seats! (Shows a clock showing the past and present of water transport.) What do we need to do to get into the past? (Turn the clock hand back.) Let's go! (The teacher or child moves the clock. Fast music sounds.)

2. Guys, imagine that you and I found ourselves on a desert island. There is no food on the island, no bananas, no coconuts, no other fruits, in general, nothing but trees and flowers. Nearby is another island, it has everything. The sea separates these islands. If you and I do not find a way to get to another island, then we will die of hunger. How to be? We have to swim across the sea, but we don't know how to swim. (And we have life jackets and buoys on) Well, but you can’t swim far in them, suddenly they will burst or go down, and the second island is very far away. What do we do? (Children's options.) So, you propose to use fallen trees. But it's dangerous to swim holding on to the trees, there are sharks in the water. (You need to lie on a tree.) The tree, if it is one, will turn over. (It is necessary to tie the trees.) With what? There are no ropes. (It is necessary to weave braids from grass and tie them together, you will get a raft.) Well done!

3. Ancient man also thought about how to swim across the sea. At first he tried to inflate the skin, then he decided to swim on a log, then he cut down several trees, cleared them of branches, tied them up - it turned out to be a raft. I used one of the branches as a paddle. (Showing an illustration.) People have long noticed that tree trunks do not sink in water. Having tied them together and armed with a long pole, they ventured on the first voyages along the coast. Guys, do you think you can go on a long journey on a raft? (No, why? (Children's answers.) Because big waves can sink a raft or wash a traveler into the sea. The raft was a clumsy and heavy structure, but it was quite suitable for transporting large loads, especially if the navigation was downstream. In deep places, where the pole did not reach the bottom, people learned to control the raft using a paddle board (perhaps observations of waterfowl suggested this idea). However, the raft could not satisfy all the needs of a person who very often felt the need for a small, light and maneuverable floating craft. The raft is considered one of the most primitive means of transportation on water.

There are several reasons that prompted a person to master the water element. Ancient people often moved from one place to another and had to carry their belongings during their wanderings. Trying to facilitate this difficult work, they began to think about means of transportation and, above all, learned to use the power of water to their advantage. In addition, in places that were located on the shores of the seas or large rivers rich in fish, swimming facilities were needed for fishing. Such a tool was a wooden dugout boat.

First they felled the tree, then they provided it with shovels

Then they beat him to the core, And they let him walk along the river.

Its prototype was also a log. It was stronger, more reliable than a raft. It is not so dangerous to go to the open sea on it. If a person burns out the core of a tree or cuts it down with an ax, then the boat is ready. Rather, man. Then the oars appeared. (Showing illustrations.) This boat was moving faster than the raft, but, unfortunately, it often capsized.

4. Different peoples had different shapes of boats and oars, and the materials from which they were made were also different. The first large ships appeared in Egypt and China. Egyptian ships were narrow, graceful, made of reeds with papyrus sails to help them sail with a fair wind. When they sailed against the wind, they used oars. Then the Arabs invented their own ship, the dhow, and the Chinese, the junk. (Show illustrations.)

From ancient times comes the fear of man before water. Having overcome it and made the river its companion, humanity actively used water flows: streams, rivers and lakes, and later seas and oceans to meet the needs of civilizations. Floating on logs and wineskins, gouging a canoe from a tree trunk, putting a sail over the boat, a person used the rivers not only for fishing. The rivers were roads, in summer boats glided along their surface, and in winter sleighs with luggage rode.

5. Clippers and galleys became the highest achievement of sailing shipbuilding. Galleys - large sailing and rowing ships - were built starting from the 8th century AD, and until the 18th century they were used in the fleets of almost all European countries. (Showing illustrations.) From the 14th century, galleys were equipped with cannons. And yet, despite the combination of sails and oars, the galleys were rather clumsy, and their speed did not exceed seven knots (about ten kilometers per hour). Clippers are fast, light, with powerful sailing equipment and excellent seaworthiness. (Showing illustrations.) "Noble goods" were transported on clippers - tea, spices, expensive oriental fabrics.

Long-distance travel across the seas and oceans became possible thanks to the creation of more advanced and reliable sailing ships, navigational instruments, instruments and maps that made it possible to navigate the open sea far from the coast. Geographical discoveries caused not only the unprecedented development of trade with distant countries, but also many wars between European states. Therefore, even merchant ships of that time had full combat weapons - artillery and equipment for boarding combat.

In the 15th-17th centuries, the shape of the hull of ships changed markedly: they became more spacious, with a high bow and stern. Such a vessel was simply impossible to budge with the help of oars - it could swim only thanks to numerous sails. However, sailing and rowing galleys and galleasses have changed little - the shape of the hull was inherited from their ancient "ancestors". In the 16th and 17th centuries, galleons were part of the fleets of England, France and Spain. These warships with a displacement of up to 1000 tons and a length of up to 50 meters were armed with 50-80 guns and were a formidable force. Living quarters on the galleon were located in a high aft superstructure, which had up to seven decks. The seaworthiness of the galleons was not the best - because of the high sides and bulky aft quarters.

6. Guys, look, someone left their things here. Who do you think? (Pirates.) Guys, who are the pirates? (People who went on ships to the open sea to rob other ships.) What films about pirates do you know and have seen? (Children's answers.) Sea robbers arose at the very time when merchant ships appeared on the sea routes. Bloodthirsty adventurers and daredevils terrified peaceful merchants and travelers. Who knows what they were often called? (Gentlemen of Fortune.) And there were pirates who attacked enemy ships with the permission of the king - however, this only happened during the war. Such pirates were called corsairs or privateers. And their ship was called - a privateer ship. There were even women among the pirates. (Examination of illustrations and layouts.) The team of pirates often consisted of sailors who did not like the hard naval work and strict discipline: in search of a happy life, they fled to pirate ships. But among them were also prisoners from captured ships, who became pirates under duress.

Guys, you and I know that all ships have flags. Did the pirates have their own flag? What did he look like and what was his name? (Examination of the illustration.) The flags were different, but flags with a skull and crossbones were more common. This flag was considered pirated throughout the world and was known as the Jolly Roger. The flag was supposed to intimidate the victims, and show what fate awaits them. For example, a skull with crossbones and an hourglass under it meant that the time of the victim had expired and the hour of her death had come. (The teacher shows the children pirate flags, and the children guess what they mean.)

Pirates were almost always armed to the teeth. What pirate equipment do you know? (Children's answers.) They could not do without a cutlass, a hook and an ax, as well as without a pistol and a dagger. One deft throw of a boarding ax - and the cable (thickness in the volume of an arm) is cut, and this is enough for the enemy sails to fall. Pirate ships were small and very manoeuvrable. (Examination of illustrations.) The pirates tried to approach their victim as discreetly as possible. Then they quickly threw boarding hooks onto the enemy ship. As soon as the ships approached, the pirates with wild cries flew aboard the captured ship, and a terrible fight ensued there: both knives and pistols were used. What other weapons were on the pirate ship? (Cannons, rifles, grenades.) The Caribbean Sea, the Mediterranean Sea, the coastal waters of North Africa and Arabia, as well as the South China Sea, where pirates are still found today, were considered the most dangerous for civilian ships.

Guys, do you know how the pirates lived on the ship? (The teacher summarizes the children's answers.) Life on board the ship was not sugar even for a pirate. In a storm and any bad weather, you had to climb up to take care of the rigging (this is the rigging of the ship, to set or remove the sails. Sometimes this is even life-threatening. After a storm or a battle, a lot on board needed to be repaired. It was necessary to patch the sails, strengthen the cables, fix masts and deck boards. From bloodthirsty robbers, pirates turned into ship carpenters. And during the calm, the pirates suffered from idleness and quarreled among themselves. Life in difficult conditions soon led the pirates to an unsightly state. They became dirty and smelled bad. During the voyage, they had to sleeping in a damp hold full of rats, they had neither vegetables nor fruits, and due to a lack of vitamins, the pirates suffered from scurvy.With no doctor or medicine on board, many of them could only replace a severed leg with a wooden prosthesis or wear an eyepatch over your gouged eye.Pirates are bandits that travel on water.While most pirates have targeted and destroyed ships, some have also attacked coastal towns.

Oh, guys, look, a bottle has sailed to our shore. Let's see what's there! (They find a “treasure map” - a plan of a group room, with the location of the “treasure” marked. The children, together with the teacher, follow the map and find a chest containing two games about pirates: “Pirates” - a toy book with stickers and “Island treasures "- a game with chips. The teacher offers to play them later, when they return back, at present)

7. Guys, who else terrified peaceful and merchant ships, as well as residents of cities and villages? (Vikings.) What do you know about the Vikings? (Children's answers.) They first appeared in Denmark, Sweden and Norway. (Display on a geographical map or globe.) When their drakar ships approached foreign shores, the locals trembled with fear. Most of the warships were brightly painted. Carved dragon heads, sometimes gilded, adorned the prows of ships. The same decoration could be on the stern, and in some cases there was a wriggling dragon's tail. Hence the name of the Viking ship. The dracars were long and narrow. They were very convenient to enter and navigate through narrow estuaries. And they were also stable enough to withstand the waves of the sea. Viking ships moved with the help of sails and oars. A simple square-shaped sail, made of coarse canvas, was often painted in stripes and checks. The mast could be shortened and even removed altogether. With the help of skillful devices, the captain could navigate the ship against the wind. The ships were steered by a paddle-shaped rudder mounted on the stern from the starboard side. The warrior leader stood bravely at the prow of the ship. And what were the ships covered on the sides? (Shields.) The sight of these fast-moving ships with snake-curved prows and warriors on board brandishing swords and axes was truly frightening. On the shallows near the shore, the warriors quickly jumped to the ground and easily pulled their ships ashore.

The Vikings often raided cities, villages, churches and monasteries. They took everything of value, set houses on fire, and injured or killed anyone who got in their way. Faced with the opposing army, the Vikings lined up closely in ranks, closing themselves with a wall of shields. Guys, what weapons did the Vikings have? (Children's answers.) They attacked the enemy with arrows and spears. Then hand-to-hand combat with swords and axes began. One of the favorite weapons of the Viking soldier was the battle axe. This ax terrified enemies with its sharp, deadly blade.

8. The development of water transport was a very important moment, which had a strong influence on the most diverse aspects of people's life. The voyage of merchants and military expeditions broadened the horizons of mankind, introduced them to new types of economic activity, tools, food crops. Sea voyages and the Great geographical discoveries dramatically changed people's ideas about the world in which they lived, and greatly contributed to the progressive development of mankind. The expanding ties between different territories and continents also had negative sides - they were the cause of the spread of epidemics of very serious infectious diseases.

Guys, who was the founder of the Russian fleet? (Peter I.)

Such a small sailing boat was called a boat. (Showing an illustration.) Russian soldiers sat on their ambulance boats, unfurled the sails and set off. Then came the big ships. They could have 2, 3 and 4 masts and many sails. Sailing ships that plied the seas in the past have very beautiful names. Depending on the number of sails and their location, they distinguish: schooners, caravels, brigantines, frigates. (Review of illustrations and models of ships.)

Frigates were the most advanced ships of the 17th century. These light, fast and maneuverable ships could take enough cargo and still remain mobile. Therefore, frigates were valued by the military, merchants, and sea pirates. A streamlined hull, the absence of high deck superstructures, two batteries of guns - one below deck and the other open - all these advantages gave the ship a long life. Look at the photos of frigates, these are magnificent snow-white beauties. (Showing illustrations.) One of the brightest representatives of the family of frigates is the frigate "Pallada".

To be continued.

Means of transport

The Australians did not have any land vehicles. They traveled exclusively on foot, and carried all their possessions on themselves. The latter, as already noted, was the duty of women.

The Australian wore her luggage partly on her arms or armpit, partly on her head. Amazing is the dexterity with which she kept in balance on her head her trough with small things, sometimes with water, while her hands were occupied with another burden; so that the water does not splash, branches with leaves were sometimes placed in it.

But the Australians had boats and rafts as water vehicles. Of course, they were only among the tribes that lived on the banks of a few rivers and lakes and along the coast of the ocean, and even then not at all. For example, among the tribes of the coast of the Great Australian Gulf and in general along the entire coastal strip from the current city of Adelaide to the mouth of the river. Gascoigne had absolutely no boats or rafts. In other places there were certain types of them.

The simplest floating means was an ordinary log, on which the Australian lay flat or sat on horseback and rowed with his hands and feet. By tying several of these logs together, he got a primitive raft, on which you can move around by rowing with an oar or simply pushing off with a pole or spear.

Rafts were used as the only means of transportation on water along the entire northwestern coast - from the northwestern cape to the port of Essington, and also met on the shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria, on Lake. Alexandrina and somewhere else. In some places on the northwest coast, rafts with two layers of tree trunks were used. A special improved type of raft is noted on the river. Adelaide (Northern Territory): it consisted of several layers of bark with a total thickness of up to 22 cm, was about 5 m long, 1.25 m wide at the wide end and lifted up to ten people.

Such a bark raft constitutes a transition to the bark shuttle or boat, the most common type of vessel in Australia until recently. Bark shuttle is found in two forms: more primitive, from one piece of bark, and more complex, sewn from several pieces. The first species was distributed mainly in the southeast, but was also found in places on the eastern and northern coasts; boats sewn from separate pieces of bark prevailed on the east coast from Brisbane north to Rockingham Bay, as well as on the western and eastern shores of the Gulf of Carpentaria and in the far north to the port of Essington.

To make a boat from one piece, the bark was removed from the tree in a large whole layer in the form of an oval; holding it over the fire, it was given the desired shape and then the ends were gathered in folds, tied or sewn, sometimes smeared with clay. Spacers were inserted between the sides. The length of such a boat usually reached 4-4.5 m, but sometimes exceeded 6 m; it accommodated up to eight to ten people. They sailed on such boats mainly along the rivers. Some boats were made very carefully and served for years. Two or three pieces of bark or more went to another type of boat. They had a flat bottom and sloping sides, separate parts were sewn together with vegetable cords, the cracks were smeared with resin, wax, and plugged with grass. They rowed with an oar or a bark scoop, even just with their hands, or pushed off with a pole. In New South Wales, fishermen, riding on such boats, laid out a fire on them, on which they immediately fried the fish.

The third type of watercraft in Australia was dugout boats. Their area of ​​​​distribution is New South Wales, southern Queensland and the northern coast, where, however, other types of boats were also found. One-trees were made by gouging and burning out the middle of the trunk. It can be assumed that this type of boat was borrowed by the Australians from their neighbors - the islanders of Melanesia. The inhabitants of the coast of Arnhem Land received them, as one of the researchers established, from Indonesian sailors, and then they themselves began to make the same pattern. Another type was also borrowed - one-tree boats with outriggers (balancers). They are found only in the north - on the York Peninsula, i.e. where the Papuan influence is generally noticeable (for example, bow and arrows). Boats with both one and two balancers, of the Papuan type, were used here. ( Annex 1)

In general, the Australians were poor seafarers.

Boats were used more on rivers and lakes than for navigation on the sea, but even in the latter case they rarely moved far from the coast. The boats were mainly used for fishing.

When the boat was not needed, it was usually pulled ashore and stored under the crown of a tree in a straight, not upside down position.

The plant has three main reproductive organs:

- Fruit (we will talk about it in this article)

fruit usually called such a formation that arose from the ovary that has grown after fertilization * (or from the flower as a whole) and contains seeds. There are a number of plants in which, in addition to the pistil (gynoecium), other parts of the flower remaining with the fruit take part in the formation of the fruit: sepals, bracts, receptacle, etc. Such fruits, which, in addition to the ovary, also include other parts of the flower, called in textbooks false. However, according to many botanists ( V. L. Komarov, P. M. Zhukovsky, A. L. Takhtadzhyan and others.), this term is clearly unfortunate. Therefore, obviously, it is necessary to expand the scope of the concept of the fetus and consider fruit derived from flower(although the most significant role in its formation undoubtedly belongs to the carpels).

In everyday life, the word “fruit” is often used completely incorrectly, to the point that it has penetrated into the agronomic sciences and has become a term: for example, roots and tubers of agricultural plants (beets, carrots, potatoes, pear) are called tubers and root crops. grains of cereals - rye, wheat, barley - in everyday life they are called seeds, although they, developing from the ovary, consist not only of the seed, but also of the pericarp and are, therefore, fruits. In the same way, sunflower "seeds" are not seeds at all, but fruits, since they also develop from a whole ovary.

Undoubtedly, it is very difficult to use manuals and determinants in which seeds and fruits are called seeds. In both pure and applied botany, only precise botanical terminology must be adhered to. Household terms cannot be applied to the botanical classification of fruits, as they are too limited and based on the consumption of the fruits themselves.. Just as unacceptable is a purely morphological classification based on features that do not reveal the essence of the evolutionary process. The natural system should be based on the structure of the gynoecium, placentation, as well as the evolution of fruit types. In this guide, we have tried to adhere to these principles.

Undoubtedly, the structure of the fruit basically reflects the structure of the flower from which it is formed. Nevertheless, in the structure of the fetus, along with its initial features, significant neoplasms of a purely ontogenetic nature appear. At the same time, the signs of a flower, distinct in the early phases of its development, gradually smooth out and are replaced by new ones that obscure its origin. In this case, the decisive word remains with the analytical study of the structure of the fetus - its carpels and the conducting system, which reflects the modification of the gynoecium. Therefore, the study of the structure of fruits, their morphological, anatomical and physiological features is of great interest.

The structure of the fruit in the life of a plant plays a significant role: on the one hand, it can provide opportunities for deep dormancy, which is characteristic of many seeds, and on the other hand, it can in every possible way contribute to their spread and colonization of new spaces.

* Along with sexual reproduction in some species of angiosperms, the embryo develops without fertilization - asexually. This phenomenon is called apomixis, in contrast to sexual reproduction - amphimixis.

Let's start with a description of the morphological features of the fetus.

The fruit consists from seed or seeds, arising from the ovules, and the pericarp (pericarp), the main part of which is mesophyll ovary walls. Three layers can be distinguished in the pericarp: outer (exocarp), middle (mesocarp) and inner (endocarp). The outer and inner layers are usually thin, consisting of 1-2 rows of cells, the middle layer is thick-walled. In the fruits of some plants, the inner layer may either be absent or play a significant role, changing noticeably (for example, forming a stony tissue). The middle layer often becomes juicy and fleshy, containing sugars and oils.

The consistency of the various layers of the pericarp can be either dry and leathery or woody, or fleshy and juicy, etc. On this basis, they distinguish fruits are dry and juicy.

The outer skin of the ovary is usually preserved on the fruits, which, together with the subcutaneous layers, can form various appendages in the form of trailers, spines, hairs, etc.

Further, as is known, the ovary is closed, while the pericarp of many fruits opens in various ways, throwing out and sowing the seeds enclosed in them. Such fruits are called expandable as opposed to non-opening, the pericarp of which, like the ovary, is always closed. The first category of fruits remains on the plants that produce them, the second usually falls off.

As already noted, traces of the structure of the ovary are often preserved on the fruits. However, there are cases when a single-celled and single-seeded fruit is formed from a multi-nested ovary with many ovules. So, from the three-celled ovary of the oak (Quercus) with six ovules, the well-known acorn, one-celled and one-seeded, arises. On the contrary, in other plants, after fertilization, new false partitions appear, which divide the fruit in different directions.

The structure of the fruits is very diverse and relatively little studied, which is why there is considerable inconsistency in the issues of their classification, even in the latest works.

A wide variety of fruits has not been sufficiently studied to build a correct and comprehensive classification. The basis of almost all existing classifications is based on the structure and consistency of the pericarp. The authors approach the fetus from a purely formal point of view, without taking into account the genetic side of the issue. In this sense, the classifications of X. Ya. Gobi (1921) and AI Maltsev (1925), built on the principle of evolutionary morphology, are an exception.

Of the later ones, it should be noted the classifications of A. L. Takhtadzhyan and R. E. Levina, who achieved a lot in the field of knowledge of fruits and the sequence of transition from one type of fruit to another. In the classifications they propose, the authors are guided not by the nature of any environmental signs of the pericarp, but by the origin of the fruit from one type or another. gynoecium - apocarpous, syncarpous, paracarpous and lysicarpous. Further, within each of these types, they identified subtypes that differ from each other in the nature of the arrangement of the carpels ( upper or lower ovary; spiral or cyclic), according to the consistency of the pericarp ( dry or juicy), according to the characteristics of the cracking of the fetus, etc. It is very important that they indicate the paths and sequence of the changes taking place.

apocarpous fruits.

The most primitive representative of this group of fruits is the naked upper spiral multileaf with numerous fruits spirally arranged on its upper receptacle. The fruits are a leaflet formed by one carpel fused at the edges. Many species from the Ranunculaceae family can serve as an example. In the process of evolution, the spiral arrangement of leaflets is replaced by a cyclic one. Further, the dry multi-leaflet changes into a juicy one, and due to the reduction in the number of carpels, a single-leaflet appears from the multi-leaflet, also dry and juicy.

The result of subsequent modifications is a multi-nutlet, consisting of individual one-seeded, non-opening fruits with a leathery or more or less woody pericarp. This formation, which arose from the apocarpous gynoecium, must not be confused with the nut, which is a derivative of the syncarpous fruit. The nut originated from the leaflet due to the reduction in the number of seeds and the modification of the pericarp, which has lost the ability to open, which provides better seed protection. The multinut fruit is characteristic of buttercup (Ranunculus), clematis (Clematis), cinquefoil (Potenti 11a), etc. The rosehip fruit (Rosa) with its extended receptacle also belongs to the group of many nuts. Among the many-nutlets there are fruits in which very small fruitlets are immersed in an overgrown receptacle, as is observed in strawberries; this fruit differs from the usual polynutlet only in the location of its fruitlets.

From a polynutlet as a result of changes that have occurred in the tissue of the pericarp; a polydrupe arose with a juicy mesocarp and a sclerified endocarp (raspberry, blackberry). From the polydrupe, by reducing the number of carpels and ovules, a single-drupe was formed.

Other changes in the structure of the unifolia pericarp led to the formation of a bean, which opens at maturity not only along the ventral suture, but also along the midrib. Legumes are usually multi-seeded, with seeds attached along the ventral suture. The opening of the bean is facilitated by the development in the pericarp of special thick-walled, lignified prosenchymal cells, forming the so-called parchment layer. In wild species, when ripe, the bean leaves curl up and scatter seeds.

syncarp fruits

The transitional link from apocarpous to syncarpous fruits is a syncarpous multileaf, in which the carpels grow together only at the base and middle part, like in Nigella arvensis. The fruits of the syncarp multileaf open at the seams of the free (upper) parts of the carpels.

The next stage in the development of the syncarp multileaf is the syncarp capsule, which is distinguished primarily by a more dense fusion of individual carpels. Among this type of fruit, the most primitive are the capsules formed from the upper ovary. The number of nests of the fruit corresponds to the number of carpels included in their formation, they are usually three to five nested, less often two or many nested. The bolls are very diverse in structure, which determines the way they open and scatter seeds.

Most often, the capsules crack from top to bottom with cracks along the entire length of the carpels, opposite each of the nests; then they say that it opens with flaps, for example, in violet (Viola), dope (Datura), etc. Sometimes the box opens at the top with cloves (Dianthus), or a special lid is separated from the top of the box, like in henbane (Hyoscyamus niger). ), plantain (Plantago major), etc.

Relatively rarely, the box turns into a fractional box, breaking up into separate nests, or a box, splitting into one-seeded fruitlets. In addition, non-opening fruits arose from the same upper syncarpous ovary, such as the lionfish in the elm (Ulmus), the two-winged fruit in the maple (Acer), etc.

Along with this, juicy syncarp berries also originated from the upper ovary - multi-seeded (potatoes, tomatoes, etc.) and one-seeded (date palm), as well as syncarp drupes - multi-stone (buckthorn) and single-stone (fruits of some palms).

Finally, the upper syncarp multi-stone berries include citrus fruits that form juicy outgrowths on the inner walls of their carpels (orange, tangerine, lemon, etc.).

Less diverse are the fruits that arose from flowers with a lower syncarp ovary.

These include lower syncarp boxes, usually cracking along the valves, characteristic of the families of iris (Iridaceae) and amaryllis (Amaryllidaceae), lower syncarp berries - fruits of cranberries, lingonberries, blueberries and lower syncarp drupes - fruits of elderberry, dogwood, etc.

By origin, the fruits of pomegranate, apple, pear and quince belong to the same type. The pomegranate has a dry pericarp and a fleshy seed coat, so this fruit can be called the lower syncarp juicy seed berry.

In apple, pear and quince, the fruit is formed from the lower syncarp ovary, consisting of five carpels and an overgrown fleshy hypanthium. In the walnut (Juglans), the fruit is a lower syncarp dry drupe.

Among the non-opening dry lower syncarp fruits are single-seeded acorn (Quercus) and hazelnut (Corylus), which have hard pericarp.

In the umbellate (Apiaceae), which, according to their fruits, belong to the same category, the fruit is formed by two semi-fruits, which are separated from each other when ripe along the line of fusion of the carpels. In each semi-fruit on the transverse section, five vascular bundles can be found, forming five main ribs, between which there may be smaller ones.

Paracarp fruits

From syncarpous fruits, on the one hand, paracarpous fruits occurred, and on the other, lysicarine ones. Among paracarp fruits, paracarp capsules with upper and lower ovaries predominate. Such a peculiar box, consisting of many carpels, is formed in the poppy (Papaver). At the top, the carpels end in stigmas, the totality of which resembles an asterisk. Inside, the poppy ovary is divided by incomplete partitions, multi-seeded. As the stigmas mature, they stiffen and form holes through which the seeds spill out.

A pod is derived from the paracarp capsule, consisting of two fused carpels, along which the seeds are located in two rows; the fruit is bilocular due to the appearance of a secondary septum between the fused edges of the carpels. A similar pod is characteristic of most cruciferous (Brassi-saceae) and some representatives of the poppy. The pods usually open from the bottom up. These include: a pod - a more or less narrow fruit, a pod - short and wide (the ratio of length to width is 1: 3) and a fractional, or jointed, pod, splitting into segments, like a wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum).

To non-opening paracarp boxes (nutlets) belong the fruits of the fumigation (Fumaria vaillantii).

A special type of paracarp fruits belonging to the same category is the grain weevil. It is a one-seeded, dry, indehiscent fruit, arising from the upper ovary, enclosed in a thin pericarp. From the upper paracarp box, in addition, juicy fruits originated - the paracarp caper berry (Capparis spinosa).

Of the lower paracarp fruits, the achene of Compositae (Asteraceae) is widespread, formed from two carpels. Here there is a dry, leathery pericarp, not fused with the only seed of the fruit. At the upper end of the achene, there is often a tuft that serves to carry the fruit through the air.

From the lower paracarp ovary, a paracarp berry also arose, an example of which is the fruit of the bryony (Bryonia).

A pumpkin should be distinguished from a paracarp berry - a multi-seeded fruit with a more or less hard bottom layer, with a juicy intracarp and a fleshy intercarp (pumpkin, melon, watermelon, cucumber, etc.). Paracarp juicy fruits of gooseberry and currant are formed by cells of the outer layer of ovule integuments. Seeds are dispersed by birds that eat them; the germination of seeds that have passed through the digestive tract is increased.

lysicarp fruits

In nature, lysicarp fruits are much less common than paracarp.

The upper lysicarp box is characteristic of the primrose (Primulaceae) and carnation (Caryophyllaceae) families. They are characterized by the opening of the fruit with the help of cracking of the cloves: the number of cloves either corresponds to the number of carpels, or doubles due to the splitting of their tops.

There is also an upper lysicarp achene, found in representatives of the Chenopodiaceae family, and an upper lysicarp nutlet in species of the Plumbaginaceae family.

The presented material on the study of the fruits of angiosperms clearly showed how individual characters or series of characters are similarly manifested in the most diverse systematic groups (families, genera, species). Due to the evolutionary process, changes occur in the structure of the flower and fruit - upper and lower ovaries appear, fruits that open and do not open, many-seeded and one-seeded, dry and juicy, etc.

Further diversity within each of the four types of fruits depends on the number of carpels that form the gynoecium, as well as on the nature of this gynoecium, in other words, on whether it is apocarpous - free-fruited or syncarpous - inter-fruitful.

Unfortunately, researchers who work in this area with a huge plant material do not use and do not even mention the law of homological series in hereditary variability, formulated by our outstanding botanist, geneticist and evolutionist N. I. Vavilov. Meanwhile, this law could most of all strengthen and justify the classification system put forward by them for the fruits of angiosperms.

Opening fruits. I type. Box fruits. The fruits have a pericarp, usually dry and leathery, in a mature state, drop-down in certain parts.

This group is in turn subdivided into a flyer, a bean, the box itself and a pod.

Leaflet (folliculus) It is formed from only one carpel of the apocarpous type. The set of leaflets of such a numerous gynoecium is called a multi-leaflet.

The leaflet is usually a dry, one-celled and many-seeded fruit, which opens when ripe with a longitudinal crack from the apex to the base along the ventral suture. More rarely, the leaflet becomes single-seeded due to reduction.

Bob (legum) also formed from a single carpel, but usually derived from a single-membered gynoecium. In a typical case, the bean is a single-celled and multi-seeded fruit, cracking longitudinally along two seams - the ventral and dorsal. Belongs to the legume family.

Box (capsule) it is formed from several, less often only from two carpels, fused at the edges, and is usually a dry single-celled or multi-celled fruit, which opens when ripe in a variety of ways.

More often, the opening of the box occurs through longitudinal cracks that form starting from the top. If cracking is limited only to the upper part of the capsule, then we have a case of opening it when the teeth crack, for example, in Silene, Cerastium, etc. In this case, the number of teeth can correspond to the number of carpels or be twice as large. The method of opening the boxes with teeth is observed only in single-celled boxes.

The boxes crack with flaps when longitudinal cracks form from top to bottom. Here we have three* different cases: 1) separate carpels are separated: in single-celled bolls, the fused carpels seem to stick out, and in multi-nested bolls, cracking along the partitions occurs; 2) carpels are torn along the median line, therefore, in multi-nested boxes against each of the nests; 3) the sashes break off along and are separated from the partitions.

Other ways to open boxes include opening them with side slots (while the top and base of the box remain connected), holes (when small holes are formed in the pericarp) and with the help of a lid (it is obtained by cracking the box with a transverse annular crack). Finally, in relatively rare cases, the box, when ripe, turns into a fractional fruit, which breaks up into separate cracking nests.

Pod (siliqua) It is formed from two carpels fused at the edges, along which the seeds sit in two rows. As a rule, the pod is bilocular, divided by a false longitudinal septum.

The mature pod cracks longitudinally along two seams, usually from the bottom up, with both valves falling away from the septum attached to the peduncle. Seeds remain at the edges of the partition. The fruit is a pod belonging to the Brassicaceae family.

A modification of the pod is a pod, in which the length exceeds the width by no more than 3 times (Capsella bursa pastoris, Camelina, Thlaspi, Lepidium, etc.).

Further, the pod, like the bean, is non-cracking due to the formation of transverse partitions in it, which develop between individual seeds, for example, in Raphanus raphanistrum. Such jointed pods, when ripe, break up into separate non-opening segments. Sometimes in a jointed pod the number of segments reaches two, and one of the segments remains barren.

Here we have a transition from the box type to the walnut type, which is observed, for example, in the one-seeded Bunias fruit. Through the reduction of the ordinary pod, due to the underdevelopment of the longitudinal septum in it, as well as the development of only one seed, a one-celled and one-seeded Neslea fruit was obtained.

Non-opening fruits. II type. Nutty fruits. The fruits are usually one-seeded, non-opening, have a dry, woody or leathery pericarp, sometimes adhering to the seed. This group of fruits, according to the degree of hardness of the pericarp and in relation to the seed contained in it, is divided into the proper walnut, achene and grain.

Walnut (nux) It is usually a one-seeded fruit with a hard, woody and fragile pericarp in which the seed lies freely.

The polynutlet consists of many individual nuts and arises from a free-carpal apocarpous gynoecium. Sometimes the nut is found as a fractional fruit, which, when ripe, breaks up into as many separate closed nuts as the carpels were part of the syncarp gynoecium, or twice as many.

Often, according to the consistency of the pericarp, it is impossible to establish a sharp boundary between the nut and the achene; such fruits are usually called the nut-like achene.

Achenium (achenium)- a one-seeded fruit with a less hard leathery pericarp, in which the seed lies freely.

The polysperm consists of many individual achenes and is formed similarly to the polynutlet from a free-carp apocarpous gynoecium.

A fractional achene arises from the syncarpous syncarpous gynoecium.

Caryopsis (caryopsis)- a one-seeded fruit with a thin pericarp tightly fused with the seed, for example, cereals (Poaseae).

III type. Berry fruits. Fruits with a fleshy, juicy non-opening pericarp (intercarp, intracarp, and sometimes placenta, seed stalks and even seed peel are juicy). Seeds are usually few or many. Among weeds, berries include nightshade fruits (Solanum nigrum).

IV type. Drupe fruits. Fruits with a fleshy, juicy intercarp and a woody intracarp, which forms a stone that contains the seeds.

Infructescences develop from a combination of several or many fruits, each of which individually originated from one flower, and all together from a whole inflorescence. Often combined fruits, growing together, seem to be one whole fruit.

In addition to the basic properties, for example, the ability of the fruit to crack when ripe in a variety of ways or to remain closed, as well as to have a dry or juicy pericarp, the fruits are distinguished by many other signs with the help of which the fruits of certain plants are recognized.

Often the peduncle remains with the fetus, and sometimes other parts of the flower itself, such as the calyx, receptacle, etc., which are involved in the formation of the fetus. In some species of the legume family, the corolla, drying out, remains with the fetus and serves as an aircraft,

In other species from the Compositae family, the calyx remains with the fetus in the form of a scaly crown, bristles, a tuft of hairs, etc.

Hairy appendages are called flyers. Fruits equipped with a membranous margin are called lionfish. Finally, the whole fruit, or only at the base, may be surrounded by fused bracts forming a cupule. All these, as well as other similar features, facilitate the identification of fruits belonging to different families and even the identification of different species of the same family.

External features also include the shape of the fruit, which is even more diverse than that of seeds. Fruits are spherical, pyramidal, flat, etc.

An equally important systematic feature is the place of attachment of the fruit. This is the place where the separation or separation of the fetus occurred, otherwise called the fruit scar. The shape, shape and color of the fruit scar sometimes help to understand the smallest systematic units. The place where the fruit scar is placed is taken as the base, the opposite end is taken as the top, or top, of the fruit. Further, the fruits also differ in the nature of attachment and location on the mother plant. Yes, there are fruits are apical, lateral, erect, hanging, deviated, etc.

The surface of the fruit, in addition to those differences that are characteristic of the seeds, is distinguished by even larger all kinds of skin formations, such as hairs, needles, spines, spines, hooks, etc. They have a different origin and are formed from different layers of the pericarp.

Fruit color, like seed color, is a less important systematic feature. However, when characterizing fruits, this feature should not be ignored,

The fruit is formed during the development of the flower in angiosperms. It contains seeds. In other systematic groups of plants, there are no structures homologous to the fruit. According to the American botanist A. Eames, the fruit is a “ripe flower”. As a rule, the fetus develops after the processes of sporogenesis, gametogenesis and double fertilization occurring in the flower. Sometimes a fetus can form as a result of apomixis, that is, the development of an embryo without fertilization. The functions of the fetus are the formation, protection and distribution of seeds.

The morphological basis of the fetus is the gynoecium, primarily the ovary. The remaining parts of the flower are the perianth, the stamens quickly fade, but sometimes change along with the gynoecium and take part in the formation of the fruit, becoming juicy or, on the contrary, woody or membranous. The most profound changes occur in the ovary. Its walls usually grow due to cell division and an increase in their size. Reserve substances accumulate in the ovary cells: proteins, starch, sugars, fatty oils, vitamins, organic acids. The mature fruit bears a seed or seeds (sometimes up to several thousand). Seeds provide efficient distribution of the species. Sometimes in natural conditions and often in culture there are seedless fruits that have arisen in violation of the processes of sporogenesis, gametogenesis or fertilization. As a result of long-term selection, seedless varieties of cultivated plants have been bred: grapes (Vitis) banana (musa) having high nutritional and commercial value. Mature seeds are attached to the pericarp in those places where the placenta (pod) was located in the ovary, often lie freely in the fruit or are densely surrounded by a fleshy wall. The maximum number of seeds in the fruit is equal to the number of ovules in the ovary, but usually less, since not all ovules reach maturity.

The fruit arising from the cenocarpous, pseudomonocarpous and monocarpous gynoeciums is formed as a morphologically single formation, and from the apocarpous one - in the form of separate units, each of which corresponds to a simple pistil of the apocarpous gynoecium. Each such unit is called a fruit. An essential part of the fruit is the pericarp, or pericarp (from the Greek "peri" - about, "karpos" - the fruit). Pericarp - the wall of the fruit or fruit, surrounding the seeds and formed from the modified walls of the ovary. In some species, other parts of the flower are involved in the formation of the pericarp: the calyx, receptacle, and hypanthium. The pericarp often makes up the bulk of the fetus. Various outgrowths are formed on the pericarp: hooks, bristles, pappuses - tufts of hairs, “wings”, which contribute to the spread of fruits. Fruits of any type, equipped with simple or pinnate hairs, are often conventionally called bats, and in the presence of pterygoid outgrowths, lionfish.

The pericarp is usually divided into three layers: outer, middle and inner. . Often, especially in monocarps, these layers are very clearly demarcated, but sometimes they differ slightly, even during anatomical examination, which is associated with deformation and compression of cells during fetal maturation. The outermost part of the pericarp is called the exocarp or extracarp (from the Greek "exo" - outside). For example, in the fruit of a cherry, this is a thin, shiny outer layer. Citrus fruits have a yellow or orange glandular layer called flavedo. The middle layer of the pericarp is designated as mesocarp (from the Greek "mesos" - middle), or intercarp. In cherries, the mesocarp is the edible pulp of the fruit, while in citrus fruits it is a whitish loose layer (albedo) lying directly below the yellow. The innermost part of the pericarp is the endocarp, or intracarp (from the Greek "endos" - internal). In the fruits of cherries, as well as peach, apricot and plum, the endocarp is a hard “stone” that surrounds a single seed and is formed by sclereids. The endocarp of citrus fruits is modified and turned into juice sacs that make up the bulk of the fruit. The ratio of the thickness of different layers in fruits of different species is not the same, which is associated with the peculiarities of their distribution. In juicy fruits, the mesocarp or endocarp usually becomes fleshy. The endocarp is most often sclerified (lignified). On the inner surface of the pericarp, remnants of placentas are visible, to which seeds are attached. The coenocarp fruit is often divided by longitudinal septa corresponding to the septa of the ovary of the compound pistil. The chambers formed in this case are called fetal nests, and they say about the fetus that it is two-celled, three-celled.

Sometimes, in different types of fruits, longitudinal partitions are formed due to internal outgrowths of the pericarp, for example, in cabbage or cruciferous ( Brassicaceae), in some species of astragalus Astragalus(legumes Fabaceae). Less commonly, transverse partitions are formed, dividing the fetus into separate chambers. Occasionally, these chambers are completely isolated from each other and the fruit easily disintegrates or breaks along the partitions between the chambers into separate segments that are carried by wind or water. Fruits that break up into separate segments are called segmented.

In the place of fusion of the edges of one carpel or several adjacent carpels, a suture is formed, which is called the suture suture, and the place of the middle vein of the carpel is the dorsal or dorsal suture (dorsal fold). At the top of the fruit, the remains of a modified column are sometimes visible. In cabbage (cruciferous) fruits, it was called the spout, and its shape and size are of great systematic importance.

In accordance with the functions, the fruits are extremely diverse in size, shape, structure of the pericarp, its color, methods of opening, the presence of outgrowths, appendages. Features of fruits are determined by the need to create optimal conditions for protecting developing seeds and ensuring settlement with minimal energy and plastic substances. For example, the fruits of many aster (composite) are small in size and weight, numerous and easily carried by the wind. In contrast, the world's largest fruit of the Seychelles palm (Lodoicea maldivica), growing in the Seychelles in the Indian Ocean, reaches a mass of more than 40 kg. Another large fruit of the tropical legume is the bean entada. (Entada phaseoloides) inferior to the Seychelles palm in weight, but can reach 1.5 m in length. A variety of fruit shapes are shown in figures 13.19 and 13.20.

The variety of fruit color is also great. The color of fruits that spread with the help of animals varies especially. They are red, yellow, orange, blue or purple and stand out sharply against the background of the surrounding greenery, which is associated with the ratio of yellow and orange pigments - carotenoids and blue-violet anthocyanins. Tropical fruits are especially diverse in color. Fruits spread by wind, water or under the influence of their own gravity, as a rule, do not have a bright color. They are usually green or brownish.

A wide variety of plant fruits of the world flora led to the emergence of their various classifications. There are applied, morphological, morphogenetic classifications of fruits that reflect their evolutionary development in different ways. Modern morphogenetic classifications are based on identifying the type of gynoecium that forms the fetus. The variety of fruits can be conveniently divided into four main morphogenetic types in accordance with the main types of gynoecium: apocarps, monocarps, cenocarps and pseudomonocarps (coenocarps in which carpels are reduced, with the exception of the only one). Each of these types combines a variety of fruits of the same evolutionary-morphological level.

Apocarpous fruits are formed from flowers that have an apocarpous gynoecium. Each individual free-standing simple carpel in the mature fruit corresponds to a free carpel. Apocarps arise from flowers with an upper ovary. Evolutionary apocarps are the most primitive (archaic) fruits. The main morphological types of apocarps are shown in rice. 13.19.

Rice. 13.19. Types of apocarpous fruits. A - dry and juicy apocarps: 1, 3 – multileaf (many buttercups and peony), 2 – polynutlet (some ranunculus), 4 – polydrupe (raspberries from the genus Rubus), 5 – juicy multileaf, individual fruitlets sit on an elongated receptacle (lemongrass), 6 – strawberry, a special type of juicy polynutlet with an overgrown receptacle (strawberries, strawberries), 7 - cinarodium, a special type of juicy polynutlet with fleshy overgrown hypanthium (rose hip); B – dry and juicy monocarps: 1 - single leaf (genus Consolidation, ranunculus), 2 – bean (representatives of legumes and other families), 3 – jointed bean, 4 – dry odnokostyanka (genus almonds Amygdalus), 5 – juicy odnokostyanka (plum genus prunus, rosaceous).

Among the opening apocarpies, one should mention the multi-leaflet, and among the non-opening ones, the many-nutlet, the varieties of which are cinarodium (rosehip fruit) and strawberry, or frag. .

Multileaflets formed by two or many, usually dry fruitlets-leaflets, opening along the ventral suture. A rather rare type of fruit - a juicy multileaf, as a rule, does not open, but on the ventral side of its fruitlets, a seam from the fusion of the edges of the carpels is clearly visible. Multileaf fruits are quite common among primitive magnoliids, rosids, dillenids, and ranunculids. These include the fruits of peonies (Paeonia) bathing suits ( Trollius) marigolds (Caltha) magnolias (magnolia). At Chinese lemongrass (Schisandra chinensis) the fruit is a juicy multileaf. When the lemongrass fruit ripens, the conical receptacle, seated with free pistils, begins to lengthen, as a result of which a semblance of a branch is formed, on which red “berries” sit, each of which is a juicy leaflet-fruit.

A multi-nutlet is always dry and differs from a multi-leaflet in non-opening single-seeded nutlets. A classic example of a polynutlet is the fruits of buttercup species (Ranunculus) as well as Adonis (Adonis) cinquefoil (Potentilla). Nut lotus fruit (Nelumbo nucifera) is called an immersed polynut. Each of the individual nuts sits in a deepening of a disc-shaped spongy overgrown receptacle. Another modification of the polynut is strawberry (fraga). In this polynutlet, the fruitlets sit on a fleshy, overgrown receptacle, well known as the “berries” of strawberries and strawberries (species of the genus Fragaria).

Cinarodium is a polynutlet, the fruits of which sit inside a jug-shaped juicy hypanthium, well known in the example of rose hips (species of the genus Rosa). Fruits of species of the genus Raspberry (Rubus) - common raspberry, blackberry, stone fruit, cloudberry - have a multi-drupe fruit. polydrupe – it is an apocarp, consisting of two to many drupes. The mesocarp of each such fruitlet is juicy, and the endocarp is hard, sclerified.

Monocarp fruits arise from flowers that have a monocarp gynoecium. These are always flowers with an upper ovary. Monocarps are genetically related to apocarps and appeared as a result of the reduction of all fruitlets, except for one. Most often they are found in the most evolutionarily advanced representatives of the subclasses rosids and ranunculids. The following morphological types of monocarps are common: bean, single leaf, single nut, dry and juicy single stone . The differences between a bean and a single leaf are small and inconsistent. A typical bean is a dry fruit that opens along the ventral seam and dorsal fold, with two flaps. Approximately half of the representatives of the legume family ( Fabaseae) has such a fruit, from which the name of this systematic group originated. Sometimes beans are found in other families. In addition to the typical bean, non-opening beans are known (in peas Pisum sativum) jointed beans, decomposing along the constrictions between the segments (genus kopeck Hedysarit), juicy indehiscent beans (in Japanese Sophora cultivated in the south of the country Styphnolobium japonicum). In the genus consolida (consolida) related to the genus delphinium (delphinium) from Ranunculaceae, the fruit is a multi-seeded monocarp, opening only along the ventral suture. Such a fruit is single sheet. Occasionally there is a juicy single leaf (for example, in a crow Actaea spicata from the buttercup family Ranunculaceae).

A single-stone is a non-opening one-seeded monocarp, the endocarp of which (bone) is hard, sclerified. The mesocarp can be juicy, as in the fruits of peach, apricot, plum, bird cherry, cherry, or dry, leathery (almond). In the latter case, the single-bone is called dry.

Finally, there is a one-nut – single-seeded non-opening monocarp. Single nuts are characteristic of the bloodworm (Sanguisorba), cuff (Alchemilla) and repeshka (Agrimonia) - plants from the Rosaceae family.

The morphogenetic type of fruit, called cenocarp, is formed from flowers with a cenocarp gynoecium. The basis of the cenocarp is a complex pistil. Cenocarp fruits are often divided into separate nests, sometimes partially collapsing by the time of ripening. Often coenocarps are unilocular. The sutures along which the carpels fused to form coenocarps are usually unclear, but remnants of at least two placentas remain. Coenocarps can arise from flowers with both upper and lower ovaries. Dry coenocarp fruits are openable, non-opening, splitting longitudinally - fractional (the so-called schizocarps) and articulated (spreading transversely). Juicy coenocarps usually do not open.

Coenocarps are the most numerous group of fruits . Morphological types of coenocarps are very diverse. The most important of them are a berry, a box, a pod, a vislocarp, a cenocarp leaflet, an apple, a pumpkin, a hesperidium, a coenobium and a cenocarp drupe, or a pyrenary ( fig.13.20).

Rice. 13.20. Types of coenocarp fruits. A – juicy and dry cenocarps: 1 - cenocarp multileaf (catchment, ranunculaceae), 2 – box opening with a lid (henbane), 3 – a box that opens along the wings (representatives of many families), 4 – jointed pod (wild radish, cabbage), 5 - apple (representatives of the apple subfamily, rosaceae), 6 – pod (cabbage), 7 - hesperidium, or orange (citrus), 8 – berry (blueberries, lingonberries, grapes), 9 - vislocarp, divided into two mericarps - an example of a fractional cenocarp (celery), 10 – cenocarp polydrupe (bearberry), 11 - pod (cabbage), 12 – coenobium, four erems are visible (borage, labiate); B – juicy and dry pseudomonocarps: 1 - walnut (hazel), 2 - achenes of various types (aster), 3 – grains (cereals), 4 – acorn (beech), 5 - pseudomonocarp drupe (walnut).

The everyday and botanical concept of "berry" differ significantly. Examples of berries in the botanical sense are lingonberries. (Vaccinium vitis-idaea), blueberries (V. myrtillus), grapes ( Vitis vinifera). The berry has a juicy non-opening pericarp, usually without a cavity inside. Seeds are immersed in the pulp of the pericarp, the outer dense layer of which is formed due to the sclerification of the integuments of the ovule. Occasionally there is only one relatively large seed. Such unusual berries in barberry species (Berberis) with their "bone", which is really a seed. The American Perseus berry looks even more unusual. (Persea americana) from the laurel family. Its large fruits, reaching 15 cm in length, somewhat resembling large pears, bear one large hard seed 7-8 cm in diameter. Close to the pumpkin berry and hesperidium. pumpkin – the fruit of representatives of the gourd family, in which placentas grow fleshy. Hesperidium is characterized by a glandular exocarp, a spongy mesocarp, and an overgrown endocarp that looks like juice sacs (species of the genus Citrus Citrus from the rue family).

A boll is a multi-seeded fruit, which differs from a berry primarily in its dry opening pericarp. The box can be single-celled or multi-celled. The number of nests in the box varies and most often depends on the number of nests in the ovary, but sometimes the septa are destroyed in a mature fruit. Boxes are characteristic of representatives of many families: lilies Liliacaeae, norichnikov Scrophulariaceae, nightshade Solanaceae, plantain Plantaginaceae, clove Caryophyllaceae, rotational Menyanthaceae, willow Salicaceae, violet Violaceae, poppy Papaveraceae, campanula Campanulaceae, fireweed Onagraceae. In shape, size and methods of opening, they can vary significantly. A box that opens longitudinally along the septa of the commissural suture (for example, in digitalis large-flowered Digitalis grandiflora and Hypericum perforatum Hypericum perforatum), called septicidal . The loculicidal box is opened along the carinal suture (Chinese tea bush Camellia sinensis). Sometimes the box breaks up into separate valves, is torn not at the seams, but in a different place (Tangut scopolia Scopolia tangutica) or opened with a special cap (black henbane Hyoscyamus niger). Some of the boxes are not opened, but the seeds are released through special slit-like holes covered with valves. Examples of such fruits are sleeping pill poppy (Papaver somniferum), types of bluebell (Campanula) and other plants. Fully non-opening capsules, in which the seeds are released after the pericarp rots, are known as dry berries (chocolate tree Theobroma cacao). Pod (and its modification pod ) also applies to coenocarps. This morphological type of fruit is characteristic of all representatives of cabbage (cruciferous). The pod arises from an ovary formed by two fused carpels. Along the fused edges of the carpels are placentas and ovules that develop into seeds. In most cases, partitions grow from the edges of the fused carpels into the cavity of the fetus, dividing it into two nests. The pod opens by tearing the valves apart, so that a frame from the edges of the carpels, carrying seeds, remains on the peduncle. There are also non-opening pods and pods. Sometimes there are jointed pods with transverse constrictions and partitions that separate the seeds, located in separate chambers. Jointed pods break along the partitions into separate segments (wild radish Raphanus raphanistrum). The length of a "typical" pod is at least 3 times the width. Pods are called fruits of the same type of structure, but the length of which is approximately equal to the width or only slightly exceeds it.

Many coenocarps do not open, but are able to break up longitudinally into separate closed or opening lobes, called mericarps, which contain one, two or more seeds. The disintegrating coenocarps are called schizocarps (from the Greek "shidzo" - I split). Schizocarpy is characteristic, for example, for many members of the Malvaceae family. Malvaceae fruits, which break up into mericarps that are not closed on the ventral side, are called rolls. Regma – this is a schizocarp, in which, when the mericarps fall off and simultaneously open, a column remains in the center. Many milkweeds have such a fruit. The well-known maple lionfish (Acer) may be called a dipterous schizocarp. In Umbelliferous schizocarps, due to its specific structure, it was called the vislocarp. When ripe, the vislocarp often breaks up along the commissure that unites the lobes of the fetus into two mericarps hanging on the so-called carpophore. A similar type of fruit is also found in some representatives of the Araliaceae family. The type of schizocarps includes the original fruit of many borage and almost all labials - coenobia. It arises from a two-celled gynoecium, in which partitions appear in the nests in the early stages of development, so that by the time of pollination the ovary is divided into four nests, each of which is located ovule. The mature fruit consists of four lobes, with one lob representing half of the carpel. Such "half-mericarps" are called erems.

Another morphological type of coenocarp is the valuable carp drupe, or pyrenary. Like the fruitlets of the apocarp polydrupe, the innermost layer of the pericarp, the endocarp, surrounding the seed, is sclerified. However, unlike the apocarpous polydrupe, the pyrenaria arises from the cenocarpous gynoecium and contains two or more bones inside. The number of seeds depends on the number of fertile (bearing) nests. An example of a cenocarp polydrupe is the fruits of bearberry, a common plant of light coniferous taiga. (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), ginseng (Rapah ginseng), linden cordifolia (Tilia cordata). Sometimes the number of stones is reduced in accordance with changes in the gynoecium and a single-celled pyrenary of the type of coconut palm fruit is formed. (Cocos nucifera), commonly referred to as coconut.

The fruit, called an apple, also belongs to the coenocarps. The nests of such a fruit contain seeds surrounded by cartilaginous tissue of the endocarp, and the fleshy mesocarp arises from the overgrown and modified tissue of the hypanthium. An apple is typical for representatives of the Yablonev subfamily from the Rosaceae family: apple trees (malus) pears (Pyrus) mountain ash (Sorbus) The morphogenetic type of fruit - pseudomonocarp is also common. Outwardly, pseudomonocarps imitate monocarps, which is why the name of the type arose. Pseudomonocarps develop from a pseudomonocarpous gynoecium. In such a gynoecium, two or more carpels are initially laid, but only one develops, and the rest are reduced. Sometimes reduction does not occur, but the carpels are so tightly fused at the edges that the boundaries between them are not noticeable. In both cases, a single ovary nest occurs, usually with a single ovule. Pseudomonocarps include walnut, acorn, pseudomonocarp drupe, caryopsis, achene, and pouch. . The pericarp of the walnut is strongly sclerified, becomes woody and bears one, rarely two seeds. Well-known hazelnuts (Corylus avellana) and hazelnuts (Corylus colurna). The nut can be quite large in size, like a hazel, or relatively small (alder Alnus glutinosa, hops Nitylus lupulus). Sometimes pterygoid outgrowths form on its pericarp, and in this case they speak of a winged nut (birch betula pendula, rhubarb Rheum altaicum). The acorn, which has a leathery or woody pericarp, is close to the nut. At the base, the acorn is surrounded by a special formation - a cupule, which is a fused sterile branches of a cymoid inflorescence (oak Quercus, chestnut Castapea). walnut fruit (Juglans regia) should be called a pseudomonocarp drupe , because its pericarp consists of a fleshy exocarp and a sclerified endocarp.

Achene – it is usually a relatively small fruit with a leathery pericarp not fused with the seed. The seed-fruit is characteristic of all representatives of the huge family of Compositae, as well as the families of hairy, valerian and nettle. Achenes are often characterized by appendages, which are modified integuments of a flower or bracts. Many achenes are equipped with voles. The sedge achene is enclosed in a specially shaped modified retort-shaped bract, which is called the sac. Zernovka – the fruit of all cereals. This is a one-seeded fruit, dressed in a thin membranous, less often fleshy (in some tropical bamboos) pericarp, growing together with a single seed.

In some plant species, the fruits do not develop singly, but form infructescences. Often, multiple fruits are understood to mean several or even many fruits fused into a single whole that have arisen from individual flowers. A classic example of this type of fruit is the pineapple fruit. According to a broader idea, the seed is a set of mature fruits of one inflorescence, more or less clearly separated from the vegetative part of the shoot. In other words, a seed is an inflorescence bearing ripe fruits. Based on this point of view, a bunch of grapes, a shield of apple-shaped fruits of mountain ash, and complex umbrellas of dill should be considered seed fruits. Infructescences can be classified based on the inflorescences from which they arise.

Seed

Seed - a special structure of seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms), which develops from the ovule after the process of double fertilization, less often without fertilization (apomixis), ensuring the resettlement of offspring. When formed, the seed is enclosed in the pericarp and is part of the fruit. Unlike the spore, which ensures the dispersal of spore plants, the seed has a number of advantages that have arisen as a result of progressive evolution. The seed is a multicellular structure that combines the embryonic plant (embryo), storage tissue and protective cover. In this, the seed differs significantly from the spore, where the substances necessary for the development of the future gametophyte plant are contained in a single microscopic cell. Physiologically, the spore and the seed are also significantly different. The spore germinates immediately when moisture enters the cell. Many seeds have a dormant period of varying duration, during which they are incapable of active life and seedling formation. In other words, seeds, as units of plant dispersal, are in all respects much more reliable and versatile than spores. The formation of the seed from the ovule begins with the fact that the zygote, located in the ovule, is extended in length and divided across by a septum. One of the cells forms the so-called suspension, or suspensor, the other - the actual embryo. The suspension contributes to the nutrition of the embryo, immersing it in the endosperm, and often acquires the properties of a haustoria - a sucker. The second cell repeatedly mitotically divides and eventually forms the formed embryo. The endosperm begins with a triploid nucleus, formed as a result of the fusion of the diploid secondary nucleus of the embryo sac and one of the sperm. The division of this nucleus gives the entire mass of nutrient tissue - the endosperm. The degree of endosperm development in different taxa is not the same. As a rule, the more evolutionarily primitive a systematic group is, the better developed its endosperm is. The reduction of the endosperm is usually associated with an increase in the relative size of the embryo. With an increase in its size, reserve substances usually accumulate in the embryo itself. During the development of the female gametophyte, and then the embryo and endosperm, the megasporangium (nucellus of the ovule) is usually destroyed, and its reserve substances are used. However, in some groups of angiosperms, this tissue is partially preserved, turning into a diploid storage tissue, physiologically similar to the endosperm. This tissue is called perisperm (from the Greek "peri" - near, near) and is noted for seeds of representatives of the pepper and clove families.

Seeds of ceratonia pod (Ceratonia siliqua) from the legume family are very constant in mass and were used by jewelers as a measure of weight (1 carat) for precious stones. The surface of the seeds can be smooth, shiny, but often rough, furrowed, ribbed, pitted, pubescent with hairs. Seeds are distinguished by color. The seeds of legumes are especially diverse in color. Seeds are often equipped with various kinds of appendages (seedlings), outgrowths (for example, pterygoid), and sometimes tufts of hairs. Usually the seeds are attached to the funiculus in the fetus, but occasionally directly to the placenta. The general plan of the structure of the seed is determined by the type of ovule from which it arose. The main structural parts of a mature seed: seed coat, nutritious (storage) tissue and embryo ( rice. 13.21).

Rice. 13.21. bean seed (Phaseolus vulgaris).A – general form; B– embryo: 1 – chalaza trace, 2 – micropyle trace, 3 – rib, 4 – seed seam, 5 - seed peel, 6 - kidney, 7 - cotyledons.

The seed coat, or spermoderm, is formed mainly due to the integuments of the ovule, less often due to the growth of chalase tissues. In most plants, the seed coat tightly surrounds the seed and serves as the main protective cover that prevents it from drying out and premature saturation with moisture. The structural features of the seed coat are associated with the methods of distribution and germination of seeds. They are of great importance for taxonomy. Seeds developing in budding fruits often develop a protective layer of sclerified cells in the seed coat. Sometimes the outer layer of the peel becomes fleshy and juicy, which attracts birds and mammals and promotes seed dispersal. A scar is noticeable on the surface of the seed - a trace remaining at the site of attachment of the ovule to the funiculus and the inner surface of the ovary. The morphological features of the hilum - shape, size, color are of great importance in the taxonomy of plants, and are also widely used in seed science when characterizing and identifying seeds.

Many seeds of flowering plants have a special formation that looks like fleshy growths, films or fringes. It develops in various parts of the seed and is called the seedling, or aryllus (from the Latin "aryllus" - dried grapes). The nature of the seed is different. Sometimes it occurs as a result of the growth of funiculus tissues, the seed is partially or completely overgrown, tightly adhering to the seed coat, but does not grow together with it.

In other cases, the aryllus is a derivative of the outer integument of the ovule. Seeds located near the micropylar seed trace are known as caruncles. Seeds are mostly brightly colored and play an important role in seed dispersal and thus in plant dispersal. The channel, or depression in the seed coat, which is the remnant of the micropyle of the ovule, is called the micropilar trace. The rest of the chalase at the opposite end of the seed is called the chalazal trace . A root emerges through the micropylar trace during seed germination. In addition to the scar, micropylar and chalazal marks on the seed coat, you can usually notice a special thickening called the rib of the seed or its suture. The suture occurs in that part of the funiculus that, in some types of ovules, merges with the integument.

The nutrient tissue in seeds can be endosperm and perisperm. In 85% of species, the seeds contain endosperm (seeds with endosperm), less often - perisperm (seeds with perisperm), even more rarely - both nutrient tissues at the same time (seeds with endosperm and perisperm). In some taxa, special nutritional tissues are completely absent, and then reserve substances are deposited directly in the embryo (seeds without endosperm). The consistency of the nutrient tissue is different: solid, liquid, mucous. The endosperm, which is hard, but provided with deep folds and furrows, is called ruminated. Most often, carbohydrates accumulate in the nutritional tissue in the form of grains of secondary starch, less often lipids in the form of fatty oil droplets. The seeds also always contain proteins, which is especially important during germination, and the phosphorus compound phytin, which is credited with the role of a stimulant in metabolic (metabolic) processes during germination .. Depending on the chemical composition of the predominant reserve substances, the seeds are divided into starchy (wheat, corn, rice and other cereals), oilseeds (sunflower, flax, peanuts, soybeans) and protein (legumes). There are several types of seeds (Fig. 13.22).

Rice. 13.22. Seed types. A - with endosperm surrounding the embryo (poppy papaver somniferum, B – with endosperm adjacent to the germ (wheat Triticum aestivum); IN – with reserve substances deposited in the cotyledons of the embryo (pea Pisum sativum); G – with endosperm surrounding the embryo and powerful perisperm (pepper Piper nigrum); D - with perisperm (cockle Agrostemma githago): 1 – seed peel, 2 – endosperm, 3 - root, 4 – stem, 5 – kidney, 6 – cotyledons, 7 - pericarp, 8 – perisperm.

The embryo (embryo) is usually formed from a fertilized egg and is a rudimentary sporophyte. The process of embryo formation (embryogenesis) is divided into several periods. The seeds of most plants contain one embryo. It is most often colorless, rarely colored and then contains chlorophyll. The degree of morphological division of the embryo is different in different systematic groups. The embryo is largely composed of the meristem. The most primitive taxa are characterized by the so-called underdeveloped embryo. It is very small, punctate and is formed during seed germination. In evolutionarily advanced groups, the embryo is well developed, nutrients can be deposited in its parts, and special nutrient tissues (endosperm and perisperm) are reduced or completely disappear. At the same time, a number of highly organized families, such as orchids, have embryos consisting of a small group of undifferentiated cells. In most flowering plants, the axis of the embryo consists of the germinal root and stalk. In gymnosperms and flowering dicotyledonous plants, cotyledons, the first leaves of the embryo, are attached to the upper part of the stalk. The part of the stalk located below the cotyledons is called the hypocotyl, and above it is called the epicotyl. The top of the stalk ends with a kidney.

In the seed of plants, the root is always directed towards the trace of the micropyle. It forms the main root of the new sporophyte. In some seeds, the hypocotyl and epicotyl during germination are able to elongate and bring the cotyledons to the surface (aerial germination of seeds). Dicot cotyledons usually have two, very rarely three or four, monocots only one, gymnosperms usually have several (from 2 to 15). The cotyledons are the first leaves of the embryo. It is believed that in the process of evolution of flowering, the single-cotyledonous embryo evolved from the dicotyledonous one. During aboveground germination, the cotyledons turn green and are capable of photosynthesis, and during underground germination, they serve as a repository of nutrients (for example, in hazel, oak) or perform the function of a haustorium (a structure that absorbs nutrients). In seeds with endosperm, they supply nutrients to the aerial part of the seedling. The kidney is the rudiment of the main shoot of the plant.

Seed growth ends shortly before the completion of its full physiological development. A little later, the influx of nutrients stops and the activity of plant hormones (phytohormones) decreases. As the activity of hormones and enzymes decreases, seed moisture drops to a minimum (5-10%). The integuments of the seed undergo significant changes: their tissues partially die off, become denser and often lignified. Such mature seeds are able to endure unfavorable environmental conditions and can retain for a long time (sometimes up to several tens of years) the ability to germinate and give life to a new plant. The state in which such mature seeds are found is called the physiological dormancy of seeds. In this state, metabolic processes, respiration, and sometimes “ripening” of the embryo occur, but the ability to swell with moisture and germinate is often inhibited. The degree of depth of physiological rest and its duration are not the same. Seeds are brought out of dormancy in various ways. Some seeds, especially annual plants, easily swell and germinate already under the influence of moisture (often this requires at least a short-term cooling). For the germination of other seeds and the normal development of the seedling, cold stratification is required, that is, they are kept for a long time at a low temperature, in a humid environment and under conditions of good aeration. Finally, there is another group of so-called "hard-seed" seeds (in legumes), the seed coat of which, due to its structural features, is waterproof. Such seeds germinate only after scarification. – artificial violation of the integrity of the peel by scratching, rubbing with sand, scalding with boiling water. In nature, such seeds swell and germinate, usually under the influence of a sharp change in temperature conditions, which contribute to the violation of the integrity of the peel.

Germination of seeds is their transition from a state of dormancy to the vegetative growth of the embryo and the seedling formed from it. Germination begins at the optimal combination of humidity and ambient temperature for each species, with free access of oxygen. Seed germination is accompanied by complex biochemical and anatomical and physiological processes. When water enters the seeds, the respiration process sharply intensifies, enzymes are activated, reserve substances pass into an easily digestible, mobile form, polyribosomes are formed, and the synthesis of protein and other substances begins. The growth of the embryo usually begins with a breakthrough of the integument by the elongated germinal root and hypocotyl in the area of ​​the micropilar trace. After the appearance of the root, the bud develops into a shoot, on which real leaves unfold. Sometimes the cotyledons are carried by the hypocotyl above the ground, turn green and perform the function of the photosynthetic organs of the seedling (aerial germination). In other cases, they are not released from the covers of the seed, remain in the ground and serve as a source of nutrition for the developing seedling (underground germination). In agricultural practice, seed germination is characterized by germination, that is, the percentage of seeds that gave normal seedlings under optimal conditions for them for a certain period. For agricultural field crops, this period is 6-10 days, for tree crops - 10-60.

Selection from the database: Branch No. 12 Lecture.docx, use of uir lecture.pdf, 1 lecture.pdf, Pathology - lecture (mesenchymal dystrophies).doc.
Lecture: Fruits.

The fruit is a specific organ of flowering (angiosperms) plants, which is a closed receptacle for seeds. It can develop both without double fertilization and without seeds (during apomixis).

The variety of fruits is huge, and they have long attracted the attention of researchers. As early as the 16th century, Cesalpini created an artificial classification system for flowering plants based on fruit types. In the 18th century, the German scientist Gertner defined the science of fruits, the features of their structure, ontogenesis, ecology and distribution as carpology(lat.carpos- fetus).

The close attention of a person to the study of fruits is not accidental. Fruits are the basis of our life and have a great importance in human life:

1) food (starchy, containing protein, fruits, drinks, vegetables, spicy);

2) fodder (beans, vetch, oats, etc.);

3) oilseeds (tung, hemp, sunflower, etc.);

4) medicinal (hawthorn, raspberry, wild rose, etc.);

5) fibrous (cotton);

6) ornamental (bottle gourd, etc.).

It can be used as the whole fruit as a whole, and its parts (pericarp, seeds.

The fruit is a gynoecium of one flower modified after double fertilization or apomixis, sometimes with other parts of the flower adhering to it.

Thus, the fetus is a flower modified after double fertilization or apomixis.

Fetal Functions:

1) protection for seeds;

2) dissemination ( lat.disseminare- distribute) is the process of seed dispersal.

The value of fruits in nature:

1) ensure the resettlement, reproduction and survival of plants (see fruit functions);

2) food for animals.

Fruit traits in plants are hereditarily stable. The plant can often be identified by the fruit. In different groups of angiosperms, the evolution of fruits proceeded in their own way, but precisely in the direction of strengthening their functions, => some fruits became multi-seeded, others - few or one-seeded. But in any case, adaptations appeared that contributed to their better distribution.

There are cases when in the same species, and even on the same plant, fruits of different structure or with different physiological characteristics (for example, germination terms) can form. This phenomenon is called heterocarp(diversity). It is found, for example, in calendula, in the families of Compositae, labiales, borage, cruciferous, etc. (two dozen families are known). Heterocarp has an adaptive value. Thanks to it, the distribution of fruits improves (fruits of different shapes spread differently), plants have reserve pathways for dissemination and the survival of plants improves (since different fruits germinate at different times) => the adaptability of plants to environmental conditions improves.

Well-known carpologists worked in the Ulyanovsk Pedagogical University: Levina R.E. and Voitenko V.F., who studied heterocarpy.

The structure of the fetus.

The fruit is made up of pericarp (pericarp ) and seeds. The pericarp usually has 3 layers: outer ( exocarp), average ( mesocarp) and internal ( endocarp). These layers may differ in consistency and structure or be of the same type. For example, in cherries (the fruit is a drupe): the exocarp is membranous, the mesocarp is juicy, fleshy, and the endocarp is hard, stony forms a bone containing the seed. The pericarp typically develops from the walls of the ovary, but sometimes other parts of the flower (the base of the stamens, petals, receptacle, etc.) can also take part in its formation.

fruit classifications.

Many attempts have been made to classify fruits, but due to the wide variety of fruits, no classification is perfect. All classifications of fruits can be combined into 2 groups:

1. Ecological-morphological (biological) - based on external features (consistency of the pericarp, number of seeds, nature of opening, method of distribution).

2. Genetic (evolutionary) - taking into account the origin and evolution of fruits. These classifications are based on the type of gynoecium, and which the fetus is formed.

1. Ecological and morphological classification of fruits.

Main classification features:

1) character (consistency) of the pericarp (juicy or dry ). In dry fruits, all 3 layers of the pericarp are dry (membranous, fibrous, stony, leathery, etc.). In juicy fruits, not all layers are necessarily juicy, one or two are enough.

2) number of seeds. Distinguish: polysperms , low seeded And single-seeded fruit.

3) the nature of the opening of the fruit. Distinguish: a) drop-down multi-seeded fruits, b) decaying low-seeded fruits, c) non-opening single-seeded fruits.

Decaying fruits are divided into two groups depending on how they break up: along the line of fusion of carpels ( fractional fruits) or across ( jointed fruit). The part of a fractional fetus is called mericarp, and the segmented - segment. They usually consist of a closed part of the pericarp with a single seed inside.

4) devices associated with the distribution of fruits (wings, tufts, trailers, etc.).

Thus, in general, the classification of fruits is as follows.

Fruit
Dry				juicy
Polysperms opening	low seeded decaying		Single-seeded non-opening	polysperms	single-seeded
Leaflet box	fractional	jointed	Nut Zernovka	Berry	Monomeric	Polymer
					drupes	polydrupe Zemlyanichina
	Visloplodnik two-winged	jointed bean Articular pod

1. Deploying dry multi-seeded fruits.

A) Leaflets - a type of dry multi-seeded fruits that open along the ventral suture.

Leaflets

Single leaflet multileaflet

(formed from one carpel) (formed from several

carpel apocarpous

polymeric gynoecium)

Leaflets are characteristic more often of primitive families and are usually formed from an apocarpous gynoecium. They are found in magnoliaceae, ranunculaceae, some Rosaceae, etc.

B) Bean - a dry, usually multi-seeded fruit, formed from an apocarpous monomeric gynoecium and opening along the ventral suture (the place of fusion of the carpels) and the dorsal vein (the median vein of the carpel). The seeds inside the bean are attached to the valves of the fruit. The bean belongs to the legume family. Some plants produce single-seeded beans - bobbins, thus losing the ability to open.

IN) Pod - a dry, usually multi-seeded fruit, formed from a paracarpous gynoecium, opening with two valves along the line of fusion of the carpels. Inside the pod has a false partition (formed by placentas) to which sections of carpels with seeds are attached in the form of a frame. The pod is characteristic of the cruciferous family. When the seeds in the pod are reduced to several or one, the pod shortens and is called pod.

G) box - a dry multi-seeded fruit of various structures and with a different nature of opening. Often the box is opened with flaps (along the line of fusion of carpels or along the central veins) (cotton, iris), less often - with valves (for example, in poppy), a lid (in henbane, amaranth). The bolls are formed from the coenocarpous gynoecium.

2. Dry decaying low-seeded fruits.

Such fruits always contain a strictly constant, small number of seeds, with each seed isolated from the others by a part of the pericarp and often having special adaptations for dispersal or germination.

A) fractional fruits- disintegrate along the longitudinal line of fusion of carpels into mericarps ("meros" Greek - part). Fractional fruits are formed from the cenocarpous gynoecium.

For example, the fruit of the Umbelliferae - visloplodnik splits into two mericarps, which hang on a peduncle split in two (carpophore).

In Lamiaceae and Borage, the fruit coenobium breaks up into 4 nut-shaped mericarps - erema(the gynoecium is formed by 2 carpels and the disintegration of the fetus goes along and across the carpels).

two-winged maple splits into two mericarps, each of which has pterygoid outgrowths (adaptations for planning in the wind).

B) Articular fruits- disintegrate across the line of fusion of carpels along special separating constriction sutures into segments.

Such fruits are found in legumes - a jointed bean (for example, elm, kopeck) and in cruciferous - a jointed pod (for example, wild radish).

3. One-seeded non-opening fruits.

A) Nut - a single-seeded indehiscent fruit with a woody pericarp (for example, hazel). In hazel, the nut is enclosed in plush a protective structure formed by overgrown bracts. The nut fruit in the plush is characteristic of the beech family, which includes beech, real (edible) chestnut, and oak. The oak fruit is a little specific, its pericarp is softer, leathery, such a fruit is called acorn .

B) Achene - a single-seeded non-opening fruit with a leathery pericarp that does not adhere to the seed. Such a fruit, for example, in Compositae. Often the achene carries additional devices associated with distribution: tufts, parachutes, trailers, etc.

IN) Zernovka - a single-seeded indehiscent fruit with a leathery pericarp adhering to the seed. It is typical for cereals, and can also have various adaptations for distribution (for example, in feather grass).

4. Juicy multi-seeded fruits.

A) Berry - juicy fruit with a fleshy pericarp and many seeds. The fruit is formed from a cenocarpous gynoecium (very rarely one-seeded or few-seeded). In the berry, the juicy endocarp and mesocarp merge with each other and the boundary between them is invisible, the exocarp is membranous. (for example: currant, gooseberry, tomato, blueberry, etc.).

B) pumpkin - a fruit very similar to a berry, but differs in a leathery (sometimes woody) exocarp and highly developed juicy (sometimes fibrous) placentas. Characteristic for plants of the gourd family (cucumber, melon, pumpkin, watermelon). In watermelon, the endo- and mesocarps are homogeneous and the placentas are not so pronounced. The gourd is formed from a paracarpous gynoecium with a lower ovary.

IN) Apple - juicy multi-seeded fruit with membranous exocarp, juicy, fleshy mesocarp and cartilaginous endocarp forming chambers containing seeds. An apple is a specific type of fruit found in the subfamily of the Rosaceae apple family and is formed from a syncarpous gynoecium with a lower ovary (apple, pear, mountain ash, hawthorn, etc.).

5. Juicy one-seeded fruits.

They can be subdivided into monomeric(or simple), formed from one pistil (moreover, the gynoecium can be both apocarpous monomeric and coenocarpous) and polymeric(prefabricated or complex), formed from several or many pistils.

A) Monomeric fruits include drupe - a juicy one-seeded fruit with a membranous exocarp, a fleshy juicy mesocarp and a hard stony endocarp that forms a bone that contains the seed (cherry, plum, apricot, sea buckthorn, date).

B) Polymeric (prefabricated) fruits include polydrupe (raspberry, blackberry, stone fruit), consisting of individual small drupes. The fruit develops from a single flower with an apocarpous polymeric gynoecium. The fruitlets are in close contact with each other and are attached to the convex receptacle that remains after the flower has faded.

2. Genetic classification of fruits.

The first genetic classifications appeared already at the end of the 19th century. One of the generally accepted classifications in our country is the classification of Rosa Efimovna Levina, which was proposed in the 60s of the 20th century.

This classification is based on type of gynoecium.

In accordance with this, the following types of fruits are distinguished: 1) apocarpous ( apocarpia); 2) cenocarp ( coenocarps), which are further subdivided into syncarpies, paracarp And lysicarpia.

Within these groups, the fruits are divided according to the following features: Apocarps are divided into: 1) polymeric and monomeric

2) single-seeded and multi-seeded

Each group of cenocap fruits is subdivided into: 1) upper and lower (according to the position of the ovary); 2) single-seeded and multi-seeded. Among the syncarp fruits, there are still few seeds.

There are also smaller subdivisions: in each of the groups, juicy and dry fruits, open and non-open, etc. are grouped separately.

The advantage of this classification is that it can be used to trace the main directions of the evolution of fruits. One of the main directions of fruit evolution is oligomerization. quality oligomerization manifests itself in the fusion of carpels and the transition from apocarpous to cenocarpous fruits.

Quantitative oligomerization is manifested: a) in a reduction in the number of carpels to 1 (for example, from apocarp polymer fruits to apocarp monomeric ones); b) reducing the number of seeds to 1 (from multi-seeded fruits to single-seeded).

This regularity can be traced most clearly on the example of apocarpous fruits.

1. Apocarpous fruits (aprocarps).

The most primitive fruits are considered to be apocarpous polymer fruits formed from an apocap polymeric gynoecium. Part of the polymer fruit is called fruit.

The initial type of apocarpous fruit is considered spiral leaflet (magnolia, swimsuit), consisting of numerous multi-seeded fruitlets-leaflets. The evolution of this type of fruit went in two directions: a) in the direction of reducing the fruitlets to a small number ( cyclic multileaf, e.g. peony, columbine) and then up to one ( one-leaflet , for example, field console). In this case, the apocarpous polymeric gynoecium becomes monomeric. From a single leaf could be formed bean when the nature of the opening changed, and the fetus began to open not only along the ventral suture, but also along the dorsal vein. Through a segmented bean, a transition to a one-seeded bean (bobby) could occur, when only one segment remains.

b) The second direction of evolution is a decrease in the number of seeds in the fruitlets to 1 and the transition from a spiral multileaf to multi-nut (fruit-nutlets do not open, but fall one by one from a convex receptacle) (buttercup, adonis, cinquefoil, etc.). Among the apocarp fruits, there are various variants of the polynutlet: strawberry - nuts are partially immersed in a fleshy, juicy, overgrown receptacle (strawberry), cynorrhodium - nuts are inside the overgrown fleshy hypanthium (rose hip), lotus fruit, etc.. It is connected with the polynut in its origin polydrupe : the walls of the pericarp have become juicy. Then, as a result of further oligomerization, there was a transition to a single-drupe (reduction in the number of fruitlets to 1) (transition from apocarpous polymeric to apocarpous monomeric fruits). Juicy drupe in cherries, apricots, plums and some other Rosaceae, dry in almonds.

2. Price carp fruits.

They are divided into: syncarpous, apocarpous and lysicarpous, evolutionarily interconnected. According to R.E. Levina from apocarpous fruits originated syncarpous, and from those on the one hand paracarpous, and on the other - syncarpous.

Coenocarp fruits evolve from multi-seeded, formed by several carpels, to single-seeded fruits, in which the number of carpels, nests and ovules decreases to 1.

In each of the groups of cenocarp fruits, the following are repeated: boxes (upper and lower) - syncarp - nightshade, iris; paracarp - violet, orchid; lysicarpous - clove; berries (upper and lower) - syncarpous - lily of the valley, blueberries; paracarpous - gooseberries, currants; lysicarpous - mistletoe, as well as drupes , dry and juicy (sea buckthorn, etc.). Each group has its own specific types of fruits.

2.1. Syncarp fruits.

Upper multi-seeded: syncarp multi-leaflet (cable), box (henbane), berry (lily of the valley). Specific citrus fruit - orange (Hesperidium) The juicy pulp of citrus fruits is formed by cells-hairs of the inner layer of the endocarp, filled with cell sap.

Upper low-seeded: fractional fruits - coenobium (borage, labial), fractional box (mallow) and two-winged (maple).

Upper one-seeded: lionfish (elm, ash), nut (Linden).

lower polysperms: box (iris), berry (blueberry, banana), specific fruit - apple.

Lower low seeded: fractional fruit of the umbrella visloplodnik And two-stone meren.

Lower one-seeded: lionfish (birch), walnut (hazel), acorn (oak), dry drupe (walnut).

2.2. Paracarp fruits.

These fruits are less diverse than syncarpous ones.

Upper multi-seeded: box (violet, poplar), berry (papaya), specific fruits: pod And pod (cruciferous) (evolution went from the pod through the jointed pod to the one-seeded pod).

Upper one-seeded: weevil (cereals), nut-shaped pod (sverbiga), dry drupe (coconut).

lower polysperms: box (orchid), berry (gooseberry, currant), specific fruit - pumpkin (cucumber, pumpkin).

Lower one-seeded: achene (composite), drupe (loh).

2.3. Lysicarp fruits.

Least diverse, rare. Almost all top. The most characteristic are multi-seeded pods with a column (cloves, primroses) and single-seeded achenes (buckwheat, amaranth, haze).

Infructescence.

In a narrow sense: infructescence - This is a collection of closely contiguous and often fused fruits.

In a broad sense: infructescence - This is a set of ripe fruits of one inflorescence.

Examples of infructescences: a pineapple - all the pistils are fused together, the axis of the inflorescence grows together with the ovaries and warps of the covering leaves into one juicy, fleshy seedling.

Figs form infructescence - synconium . The axis of the inflorescence is pitcher-shaped, concave, fleshy. Inside, at first there are numerous small flowers, and then fruitlets - nuts, immersed in a fleshy, overgrown axis.

glomerulus beet consists of several fused fruits. Therefore, during germination, several seedlings are formed. Now beet varieties have been bred, the ball of which contains 1 seed (“Single-sprout”).

Infructescences are also formed in cattail (cob), in strawberry clover (head), etc.