Rapprochement between Russia and England. Aggravation of Russian-German relations Deterioration of Russia's relations with Germany and Austria-Hungary

IN soon after the signing of the treaty, Russian-German relations began to noticeably worsen. The first reason for this was the events in the Balkans. Between Russia and Austria-Hungary there was a struggle for influence in Bulgaria. The redeployment of Russian troops near the Austrian border, which was carried out according to the long-adopted plan for the regrouping of the entire Russian army, caused concern in Austria.

In the autumn of 1887, it became known that Bismarck not only helped Austria-Hungary, but also supported the Bulgarian prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, against whom Russia fought. The German press campaigned against Russian credit, and Bismarck issued a decree forbidding government agencies from placing money in Russian papers; He forbade the Reichsbank to accept these papers as collateral. At the end of 1887, an increase in duties on bread was carried out in Germany. Fighting against the creation of a Russian-French alliance, Bismarck himself helped hasten its emergence, although he understood the danger of a German war on two fronts.

In March 1888, Wilhelm I died, soon ascended the throne Wilhelm II who was under the influence of the Minister of War Alfred von Waldersee, a supporter of a preventive war with the Russian Empire and France. Since the position of Bismarck, who had a negative attitude towards Russia, but rejected the war with her in connection with the threat of French intervention, came into conflict with the opinion of the emperor and the chief of the German General Staff, March 20, 1890 Bismarck resigned after he had been head of the governments of Prussia and Germany for 28 years.

5. Franco-Russian alliance.

The objective development of historical events in Europe led to this. For France, an alliance with Russia was more important than for Russia with France. Therefore, it is not surprising that the initiative came from Paris. The union was formalized in August 1891 and December 1893. The agreements were concluded in 1891 through an exchange of letters between the foreign ministers of France and Russia. The countries decided to consult on all issues that could threaten peace, and in the event that one of the states was under the threat of attack, Russia and France pledged to immediately agree on the necessary measures. Subsequently, representatives of the general staffs prepared a military convention, which was signed in August 1892. In December 1893, the documents were ratified.

Thus, the alliance between France and Russia became valid. Agreements of 1891, 1892 and 1893 were kept in the strictest confidence. The rapprochement of these countries, as well as the Anglo-German rivalry that soon followed, led at the turn of the two centuries to the creation of a coalition of three powers - England, France and Russia, opposing the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.

Lecture 12 International relations in North and Latin America in the XIX - early XX centuries.

1. US foreign policy at the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries.

2. Civil war (1861–1865) in the USA and the positions of the European powers.

3. Countries of Latin America and international relations.

The result of all the measures taken by Bismarck against Russia was a sharp deterioration in Russian-German relations. It coincided with an even more acute crisis in Russia's relations with Austria-Hungary.

The reason for this crisis was the energetic support that Austria-Hungary provided to the new Bulgarian prince, while Russia stubbornly evaded his recognition, considering him a usurper. In the fall, Kalnoki sharply criticized Russian policy in a public speech. The Russian government, in turn, adopted a threatening tone towards Austria. All this was accompanied by a noisy newspaper squabble.

These events were given particular seriousness by the fact that in Russia they coincided with the transfer of several military units to the Austrian border. In fact, this transfer was part of a large plan to change the deployment of the Russian army, which was developed a long time ago, even before the Russo-Turkish war. The new transfers of troops at the end of 1887, therefore, contained absolutely nothing immediately threatening. But in the tense atmosphere of 1887, the Austrians were very frightened by these Russian military measures. For its part, Russian diplomacy (and even Gire) did not dispel these fears, hoping to use them to put pressure on Austria on the question of the fate of the Bulgarian princely throne.

To top it all off, in the fall, during the stay of Alexander III in Copenhagen with his wife's parents, documents were handed over to the tsar, from which it was clear that Bismarck actively supported Prince Ferdinand.

On his way back from Copenhagen, the Tsar stopped by Berlin. Bismarck met him in a very peculiar way. The day before Alexander's arrival, he issued the above-mentioned decree forbidding the pawning of Russian papers in the Reichsbank. And then, showing his claws in this way, in a personal meeting, the chancellor, with all his eloquence, tried to convince the king that Germany was not at all interested in supporting Ferdinand of Coburg. Under the atom, of course, Bismarck proved the forgery of the documents handed over to the tsar.

Moltke and his assistant, Quartermaster General Waldersee, citing Russian military preparations, demanded a preventive war against her. They pointed to the superiority of Germany in terms of combat readiness and reminded that the balance of power could soon change. But no matter how much Bismarck hated Russia, he, nevertheless, did not want a war against her. He foresaw the extraordinary difficulties of this war. He knew that it would inevitably be complicated by the intervention of France, and he understood all the hardships of a war on two fronts. The chancellor intimidated Russia, but resolutely opposed the warlike plans of the German General Staff.

By the end of December, the Russian government realized that threats against Austria would not give it anything. But Bismarck, in turn, was convinced that he would not achieve the goals that he set for himself, and would only completely spoil Russian-German relations. Then the Chancellor changed front. He helped the tsar to receive purely demonstrative satisfaction, having obtained from the sultan, as the suzerain of Bulgaria, a proclamation on the illegality of the election of Ferdinand. The latter, however, remained on the throne, although he was not recognized de jure. After that, the political atmosphere somewhat relaxed. But the state of Europe resembled a severe hangover. Bismarck failed to direct Russian politics into the political channel he needed. By his pressure on Russia, Bismarck achieved results directly opposite to those he aspired to: with his own hand he laid the foundation of the very Franco-Russian alliance, to the prevention of which, after 1871, he devoted his efforts for so many years after 1871.

Money denied in Berlin was found by the tsarist government in Paris. In 1887, the first Russian loans were concluded in France, and in 1888-1889. a huge financial transaction was carried out on the Parisian money market to convert the Russian state debt. Since then, one loan has followed another. French capital became the main creditor of tsarism. Soon tsarist Russia became the most important area for the export of French capital. Subsequent events showed what an important political tool these loans were in France's relations with Tsarist Russia.

After the events of 1887, the pro-German clique of Ferdinand of Coburg drew Bulgaria into the orbit of Austro-German politics. But neither the mistakes of the tsarist policy, nor the criminal activities of the Bulgarian ruling clique could weaken the feeling of solidarity that binds the Bulgarians with their liberators, the Russians. This feeling remained the most important political factor, which the diplomacy of the Coburg camarilla had to reckon with in one way or another.

IN soon after the signing of the treaty, Russian-German relations began to noticeably worsen. The first reason for this was the events in the Balkans. Between Russia and Austria-Hungary there was a struggle for influence in Bulgaria. The redeployment of Russian troops near the Austrian border, which was carried out according to the long-adopted plan for the regrouping of the entire Russian army, caused concern in Austria.

In the autumn of 1887, it became known that Bismarck not only helped Austria-Hungary, but also supported the Bulgarian prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, against whom Russia fought. The German press campaigned against Russian credit, and Bismarck issued a decree forbidding government agencies from placing money in Russian papers; He forbade the Reichsbank to accept these papers as collateral. At the end of 1887, an increase in duties on bread was carried out in Germany. Fighting against the creation of a Russian-French alliance, Bismarck himself helped hasten its emergence, although he understood the danger of a German war on two fronts.

In March 1888, Wilhelm I died, soon ascended the throne Wilhelm II who was under the influence of the Minister of War Alfred von Waldersee, a supporter of a preventive war with the Russian Empire and France. Since the position of Bismarck, who had a negative attitude towards Russia, but rejected the war with her in connection with the threat of French intervention, came into conflict with the opinion of the emperor and the chief of the German General Staff, March 20, 1890 Bismarck resigned after he had been head of the governments of Prussia and Germany for 28 years.

5. Franco-Russian alliance.

The objective development of historical events in Europe led to this. For France, an alliance with Russia was more important than for Russia with France. Therefore, it is not surprising that the initiative came from Paris. The union was formalized in August 1891 and December 1893. The agreements were concluded in 1891 through an exchange of letters between the foreign ministers of France and Russia. The countries decided to consult on all issues that could threaten peace, and in the event that one of the states was under the threat of attack, Russia and France pledged to immediately agree on the necessary measures. Subsequently, representatives of the general staffs prepared a military convention, which was signed in August 1892. In December 1893, the documents were ratified.

Thus, the alliance between France and Russia became valid. Agreements of 1891, 1892 and 1893 were kept in the strictest confidence. The rapprochement of these countries, as well as the Anglo-German rivalry that soon followed, led at the turn of the two centuries to the creation of a coalition of three powers - England, France and Russia, opposing the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.

Lecture 12 International relations in North and Latin America in the XIX - early XX centuries.

1. US foreign policy at the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries.

2. Civil war (1861–1865) in the USA and the positions of the European powers.

3. Countries of Latin America and international relations.

4. US foreign policy in the system of international relations in the late XIX - early XX centuries.

Target - show the development of US foreign policy after the war of independence, the development of the "Monroe Doctrine", the process of US territorial expansion, the US expansionist policy towards Latin American countries.

Keywords - theory of "predestination of fate", pan-Americanism

Creation of the Triple Alliance.

The implementation of the policy according to the logic of Bismarck is closely linked to the existence of a strategic alliance of Germany, Austria and Russia. Moreover, Bismarck emphasizes its significance precisely as an alliance based on an objective awareness of each of the participating powers of its need, and not on the thesis of monarchical and dynastic solidarity (on the contrary, in a number of places Bismarck complains about the too strong dependence of the foreign policy of monarchical countries on personal will emperors and the presence of certain dynastic interests). 16 After the Russian-Turkish war, England for a time actually became the mistress of the Black Sea straits. She received the island of Cyprus, and her squadron was stationed in the Sea of ​​Marmara. British warships could freely enter the Black Sea and threaten the southern shores of Russia, which did not yet have a fleet there. Despite the contradictions, Russia and Germany were linked by economic interests, the relationship of the Romanovs with the Hohenzollerns, monarchist solidarity and fear of revolution. With the support of Berlin, Petersburg hoped to neutralize Vienna in the Balkans and prevent the British occupation of the Black Sea Straits.17
Even when the direct "alliance of the three emperors" collapsed, Bismarck made a lot of efforts to ensure Germany's bilateral relations with Austria and Russia. Bismarck considers wars between these three powers to be contrary to any logic and to their own interests. In addition, by maintaining good relations with both Austria and Russia, Germany is able to overcome the danger of isolation on the continent, as well as the equally formidable danger of the "Kaunitz coalition" between Austria, France and Russia. And the fact that in 1879 Bismarck was inclined to conclude a separate treaty with Austria directed against Russia does not mean, according to Bismarck, that the strategy of "wire to Russia" was abandoned. On the contrary, it is the alliance with Russia (and not with Austria, the progressive decline, the inconsistency of the internal political structure and the growing social contradictions within which Bismarck was well aware) that he focuses on in his foreign policy doctrine, and if the anti-Russian agreement was signed, then, as he emphasizes Bismarck, it was due primarily to the aggressively pan-Slavic foreign policy of Russia, which did not correspond to genuine Russian interests, and was emphatically temporary, not durable. Bismarck repeatedly emphasizes that "between Russia and Prussia-Germany there are no such strong contradictions that they could give rise to a break and war."18
But after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, relations between Russia and Germany worsened. Berlin supported Vienna in the European commissions on establishing new borders for the Balkan states, and in connection with the global agrarian crisis began to pursue a protectionist policy. It consisted, in particular, in an almost complete ban on the import of livestock and the establishment of high duties on bread from Russia. Germany also protested against the return of the Russian cavalry to the Baltic provinces after the war with Turkey. The "newspaper war" was added to the "customs war". Throughout 1879, Slavophiles accused Germany of "black ingratitude" for Russia's benevolent neutrality during the Franco-German war, and Berlin recalled its role in the partial preservation of the Treaty of San Stefano.19
In St. Petersburg, sentiments in favor of rapprochement with France intensified, but in the late 1870s and early 1880s there were no conditions for the implementation of this course. Russia, which was on the verge of war with England in Central Asia, was interested in the security of the western borders, and France, which pursued an active colonial policy in Africa and Southeast Asia, in turn, did not want complications with London and Berlin

2.2. Goals of the tripartite alliance.

Uniting to protect allies, in any case. Defense against the opposite Entente. The results are deplorable: Italy withdrew from the union and went over to the side of the Entente. Ultimately, the Triple Alliance fell apart and the 4 great empires of Eurasia fell apart. In 1919, the Germans were forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which was drafted by the victorious states at the Paris Peace Conference.
Peace treaties and payments of reparations, shameful for the countries, were signed.

Germany (Treaty of Versailles (1919))
Austria (Treaty of Saint-Germain (1919))
Bulgaria (Treaty of Neuilly (1919))
Hungary (Trianon Peace Treaty (1920))
Turkey (Sevres Peace Treaty (1920)).
The results of the First World War were the February and October revolutions in Russia and the November revolution in Germany, the liquidation of three empires: the Russian, Ottoman empires and Austria-Hungary, the latter two being divided. Germany, having ceased to be a monarchy, was cut down territorially and weakened economically. The Civil War began in Russia, on July 6-16, 1918, the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries (supporters of Russia's continued participation in the war) organized the assassination of the German ambassador Count Wilhelm von Mirbach in Moscow in order to disrupt the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Soviet Russia and Kaiser Germany. The US has become a great power. The difficult conditions for Germany of the Treaty of Versailles (payment of reparations, etc.) and the national humiliation it suffered gave rise to revanchist sentiments, which became one of the prerequisites for the Nazis to come to power and unleash the Second World War.

The behavior of the German chancellor during the Eastern crisis clearly showed that in the event of an Austro-Russian war, Germany would support Austria-Hungary. The consequence of the position taken by Bismarck during the days of the Eastern crisis was the deterioration of Russian-German relations. After Berlin Congress The Slavophil press launched a noisy campaign. Slavophile publicists, headed by I. Aksakov, accused Russian diplomacy of having, allegedly due to cowardice, lost everything that was obtained with Russian blood. The Slavophile press spoke out against Bismarck even more passionately. She resented that he had betrayed Russia, forgetting what position she had taken during the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. This motif was picked up by government circles. Trying to justify itself before the noble-bourgeois public opinion, the tsarist government did not interfere with the exposure of the ambiguous policy of the German Chancellor.

Bismarck did not remain in debt. For his part, through the press, he put into wide circulation the version of the "ungratefulness" of Russia. This motive was persistently developed in the diplomatic correspondence of the German Chancellor.

Bismarck claimed that at the Berlin Congress he did more for Russia than all her own diplomats put together.

It should be noted that neither Gorchakov nor Alexander II, despite the presence of some resentment, after the congress did not initially take a position hostile to Bismarck. Against, Russian diplomats sought support from the German delegates in commissions set up by Congress to clarify new borders in the Balkans.

The first hostile step was taken by Bismarck himself. In October 1878, the chancellor instructed the German delegates in these commissions to take an anti-Russian position. After all the diplomatic failures and in the situation of extreme political tension in Russia, the tsarist government took this turn of German policy extremely painfully. Another source of cooling in Russian-German relations was economic contradictions.

Germany was one of the most important markets for Russian raw materials. In 1879, she absorbed 30% of Russian exports, standing directly behind England. Meanwhile, the world agrarian crisis, which began in the 1970s, extremely intensified the struggle for food and raw material markets. The Prussian Junkers persistently demanded that the German market be protected from foreign competition. To please the Junkers, in January 1879, under the guise of quarantine measures, Bismarck established an almost complete ban on the import of Russian cattle. The external reason for this was the plague, which was found in the Astrakhan province. This event severely hit the pockets of the Russian landlords and further intensified the anti-German campaign in the Russian press. The German ambassador in St. Petersburg, General Schweinitz, wrote in his diary that "the measures against the Vetlyansk plague caused (in Russia) more hatred than anything else."

After the implementation of quarantine measures, on January 31, 1879, it was no longer the opposition Slavophile press, but the St. Petersburg newspaper Golos, associated with Gorchakov, that launched a campaign against Bismarck. The German Chancellor did not shy away from the fight. Thus began the sensational "newspaper war" of the two chancellors throughout Europe.

The restriction on the import of livestock in the same 1879 in Germany was followed by the introduction of duties on bread. Grain duties hit Russian agriculture even more painfully than the "veterinary" measures. They threatened to completely undermine the Russian monetary system. Relations between Russia and Germany deteriorated sharply.

Austro-German Confederation (October 7, 1879). Bismarck did not regret that Russo-German relations had deteriorated. This even favored his goals, as it allowed him to consolidate his long-conceived cooperation with Austria. A significant difficulty, however, created for Bismarck only the stubborn resistance of the aged Emperor Wilhelm, who did not want to conclude an alliance against the Russian Tsar. To overcome this obstacle, Bismarck tried his best to convince the emperor of Russia's hostility. By the way, in the notes submitted to the monarch, Bismarck first developed the version that after the Berlin Congress Russia took a threatening position against Germany. Bismarck used a personal letter that Alexander II wrote to Wilhelm on August 15. In this message, the tsar complained about the behavior of Germany in matters related to the implementation of the Berlin Treaty. The tsar accused Bismarck of taking unfriendly actions out of hatred for Gorchakov. The letter ended with a warning that "the consequences of this could be disastrous for both of our countries." For Bismarck, this letter was a godsend. The emperor was offended by the king's appeal. But still, even this insult did not force Wilhelm to change his attitude towards the Austro-German alliance. The emperor decided to make an attempt to explain himself to the king. To do this, he sent his adjutant Field Marshal Manteuffel to him. Alexander II managed to completely calm the envoy of the German Kaiser. The Tsar expressed a desire to speak personally with Wilhelm; he agreed to this meeting, despite the resistance of Bismarck. The meeting took place on September 3-4 in Alexandrov, on Russian territory, near the border. After that, Wilhelm returned to Berlin completely reconciled with his nephew. He did not want to hear any more about an alliance with Austria.

Not embarrassed by the disagreement of the monarch, Bismarck continued negotiations with Andrássy. On September 21, the chancellor arrived in Vienna. There he agreed with the Austro-Hungarian minister on the text of the union treaty. Initially, Bismarck sought from Austria-Hungary such an agreement, which would be directed not only against Russia, but also against France. However, Andrássy flatly refused to do so. Bismarck relented. The Austro-German treaty of alliance was adopted in Andrássy's formulation. The first article of the treaty read: “In the event that one of the two empires, contrary to the hopes and sincere wishes of both high contracting parties, was attacked by Russia, both high contracting parties are obliged to come to the aid of each other with the entire aggregate of the armed forces of their empires and accordingly, do not conclude peace otherwise than jointly and by mutual agreement. In the event of an attack not by Russia, but by some other power, both sides promised each other only benevolent neutrality, unless Russia also joined the aggressor. In the latter case, Article 1 immediately came into force, and each of the contracting powers pledged to enter the war on the side of its ally. The treaty was to remain secret; one of the motives for this was that Andrássy feared serious opposition in the Austrian Parliament.

The treaty, specially pointed against Russia, was clearly unacceptable to Wilhelm. In order to break the resistance of the emperor, Bismarck, upon his return from Vienna, on September 26, convened the Prussian Council of Ministers and received from his colleagues the consent to a collective resignation if an alliance with Austria was not concluded. In the end, the emperor relented: on October 7, the treaty was signed in Vienna by Count Andrássy and the German ambassador, Prince Reiss.

After the treaty was signed, Bismarck drafted a letter from the Kaiser to the Tsar; he considered it necessary to somehow explain to Alexander II his trip to Vienna. The letter was an example of a diplomatic hoax intended to disguise the true purpose and content of the Austro-German alliance. The tsar was informed that Bismarck's meeting with Andrássy was caused by the latter's desire to explain the reasons for his forthcoming resignation. At the same time, an agreement was allegedly concluded on the mutual solidarity of Germany and Austria in the maintenance of peace; the content of this imaginary agreement, which consisted of commonplaces, was communicated to Alexander in a special memorandum. To top it off, the Russian government was invited to "join" this mythical treaty. The old emperor rewrote the text offered to him and sent it to the king, affixing the document with his signature.

Austro-German alliance treaty was formulated as defensive. In fact, it turned out to be a source of innumerable complications. Stalin gave a precise assessment of it. “Germany and Austria concluded an agreement, a completely peaceful and completely pacifist agreement,” he pointed out, “which later served as one of the foundations of the future imperialist war.”

The conclusion of the Austro-German alliance marked the beginning of the formation of those military coalitions that later clashed in the First World War. The initiative in this belonged to the Germans.

Germany paid dearly for this Bismarck maneuver, although the reckoning did not come so soon, only in the early 1990s. The treaty against Russia eventually led to the failure of Bismarck's entire policy, the main goal of which was to isolate France. “The consequence of this agreement on peace in Europe, and in fact about the war in Europe, was another agreement, the agreement between Russia and France in 1891-1893,” Stalin noted.

Renewal of the alliance of the three emperors. Concluding an alliance with Austria-Hungary, Bismarck did not close his eyes to the dangers lurking in him. However, he was sure that this act hostile to Russia would get away with it with impunity. Due to financial exhaustion and the alarming internal situation of the country, the tsarist government could not even think about resuming in coming years of offensive policy. The need for a respite was also caused by the fact that the transformation of the Russian army, conceived by the Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, continued. A new war would prevent this business from being completed. Meanwhile, the Berlin Congress revealed the extreme tension in Russian-English relations. The tsarist government feared that in the event of a new conflict with England, an English fleet might appear in the straits and the Black Sea. At the Berlin Congress it became clear that England was by no means intends to comply with the principle of closing the straits for military vessels. If England became the mistress of the straits, the thousand-mile coast of the Black Sea would be open to the guns of the English fleet, and the whole foreign trade of southern Russia - dependent on the will of England.

In the face of such a danger, Russia first of all needed to acquire its own fleet on the Black Sea. But, firstly, the fleet could not be built in one day; secondly, its construction required a lot of money, which the tsarist government did not have. It was only in 1881, three years after the end of the Russian-Turkish war, that it was able to start building a navy. The first battleships on the Black Sea were launched only in 1885-1886.

Preparing for a possible struggle against England, Russia was extremely interested in getting out of the state of that political isolation in which she found herself at the Berlin Congress. At the same time, Russian diplomacy sought to alienate its likely allies from England and, above all, the English comrade-in-arms at the Berlin Congress - Austria-Hungary. Further, it was meant to make England herself feel that Russia could cause her trouble in such a sensitive place as the northwestern approaches to the borders of India. In the same way, it was assumed an attempt to tear Turkey away from England. Finally, in the absence of a fleet, it was important to advance at least Russian ground forces closer to the straits. Russian diplomacy hoped to resolve the first of these tasks by resuming the agreement of the three emperors; the second - the advancement of Russians in Central Asia; the decision of the third was partly provided for by the same agreement of the three emperors. But, most importantly, it unexpectedly helped the capture of Egypt by England: he pushed Turkey away from England and destroyed the Anglo-Turkish alliance. The Russian government hoped to accomplish the fourth task by consolidation of Russian influence in Bulgaria and the organization of the Bulgarian army under the leadership of Russian officers. Dominating the Bulgarian foothold, Russia could keep the straits under attack. Such were the aims which the situation at the end of 1878 set before the leaders of Russian diplomacy.

The implementation of these diplomatic tasks coincided with changes in the leadership of Russian foreign policy. From the end of the summer of 1879, Prince Gorchakov almost completely retired from business due to poor health; in 1879 he was 81 years old. Formally, he remained a minister until 1882, but from 1879 the management of the ministry was entrusted N.K. Girsu. Gears was not a stupid official, but he was by no means outstanding. Timidity and indecisiveness were perhaps his main characteristics. Most of all he was afraid of responsibility. In addition, he had neither connections nor fortune, and both were given great importance in those days. Girs greatly valued his official position and his salary. The new king, Alexander III, he was afraid of panic. When Girs went with a report to the king, his closest assistant Lamzdorf went to church to pray for a successful outcome of the report. In addition, Giers was German. He tirelessly took care not to offend German interests and be pleasing to Bismarck. Only for the sake of this did this gray man sometimes take the initiative. At times he acted literally as a German agent.

In 1878-1881, that is, in the last years of the reign of Alexander II, over the head of Girs, an incomparably larger figure, Minister of War D. A. Milyutin, influences the leadership of Russian diplomacy. Milyutin participated in a number of campaigns, but in his warehouse he was more a professor of military art and a first-class military organizer than a commander and military general. True, Milyutin had no diplomatic experience; however, unlike Gears, it was a strong personality. As long as he enjoyed influence, that is, as long as Alexander II was alive, Milyutin could be considered the de facto leader of Russia's foreign policy. He saw the main task of this policy in providing the country with a respite to complete the reorganization of the Russian army.

Saburov was sent to Berlin to restore normal relations and treaty ties with Germany. Soon he was appointed ambassador there. As early as September 1, 1879, after Manteuffel's trip to the tsar, Bismarck believed that negotiations with Russia on an alliance were impossible: they would make it difficult for Germany to move closer to Austria. But after the matter with Austria was over, Saburov found the chancellor in a completely different mood. True, Bismarck began by complaining about Russia's "ungratefulness" and hostility. According to him, information reached him that Russia was proposing an alliance between France and Italy. The chancellor made it clear that he himself had already reached an agreement with Austria. However, after all this, he declared that he was ready to begin restoring the alliance of the three emperors. He made the participation of Austria an indispensable condition for an agreement with Russia. Saburov at first imagined that it would be possible to negotiate with Germany not only without Austria, but also against it. However, soon the Russian diplomats had to be convinced of the impossibility of such a turn of affairs.

The Austrians gave Bismarck much more trouble. Hoping for the cooperation of England, the Austrian politicians did not want to make a deal with Russia for a long time. However, in April 1880, an event occurred that made Austria more accommodating. The cabinet of Beaconsfield fell; replaced by Gladstone. The entire electoral campaign was carried out by Gladstone under the slogan of the struggle against the foreign policy of Beaconsfield. Gladstone proclaimed the usual liberal slogans: a "concert of Europe", the renunciation of any separate action, the freedom and equality of nations, economy in military spending and the avoidance of any alliance treaties that could bind the foreign policy of England. Essentially, Gladstone's policy remained one of colonial expansion; it was under him that the occupation of Egypt by British troops took place. But there was still some real content in all this liberal phraseology. The restoration of the "European concert", destroyed by Beaconsfield at the time of the rejection of the Berlin Memorandum, and the slogan of freedom and equality of nations, translated into simple language, meant the rejection of the Anglo-Turkish alliance, as well as the actual protectorate over Turkey, i.e., the foundations of Beaconsfield's foreign policy , for the sake of attempting an agreement with Russia. With direct encouragement from Beaconsfield, the sultan hesitated to implement a number of decisions of the Berlin Congress that were unpleasant for him. Among them was the correction of the borders of Montenegro and Greece Gladstone sharply turned this political course. In the autumn of 1880 and at the beginning of 1881, Russia and England, with the passive support of France and Italy, forced the sultan to cede Thessaly to Greece and satisfy the claims of Montenegro by threat of the use of force.

Now Austria clearly could not count on the support of England. Moreover, the threat of an Anglo-Russian agreement grew before her. For some time, the Austrians did not want to believe this, and therefore negotiations with Russia dragged on for about a year. Finally, the Austrians realized that they had nothing to expect from Gladstone. Then their hesitation came to an end. On June 18, 1881, an Austro-Russian-German treaty was signed. Following the example of the treaty of 1873, it also went down in history with the loud title of the “Union of the Three Emperors”. Unlike the 1873 treaty, which was a consultative pact, the 1881 treaty was primarily a neutrality agreement.

The contracting parties mutually pledged to maintain neutrality in the event that any of them would be at war with the fourth great power. This meant that Russia pledged to Germany not to interfere in the Franco-German war. Apparently, the influence of Girs and other Germanists from the royal environment affected here. Germany and Austria in exchange guaranteed the same to Russia in the event of an Anglo-Russian war. The guarantee of neutrality also extended in the event of a war with Turkey, provided, however, that the aims and expected results of this war were agreed in advance. It was envisaged that none of the parties to the treaty would try to change the existing territorial position in the Balkans without prior agreement with the other two partners. In addition, Germany and Austria promised Russia that they would provide her with diplomatic support against Turkey if she retreated from the principle of closing the straits to the warships of all nations. This point was especially important for the Russian government. He warned the possibility of an Anglo-Turkish agreement and eliminated the danger of the appearance of the English fleet in the Black Sea. Thus, by means of the treaty of June 18, 1881, Germany guaranteed itself Russian neutrality in the event of its war with France; Russia ensured for itself the neutrality of Germany and Austria during its war with England and Turkey.

By the Treaty of June 18, 1881, Bismarck secured himself from the Franco-Russian alliance in exchange for his guarantees for Russia in the event of an Anglo-Russian war. The vulnerability of this whole diplomatic combination was that the agreement of the three emperors could only last until the Austro-Russian contradictions awakened again, which softened after the end of the Eastern crisis of 1875-1878. In other words, the agreement of the three emperors was stable only insofar as the situation in the Middle East remained more or less calm.

The second treaty of 1881 and 1884. On June 6 (18), 1881, a new treaty of the three emperors was signed in Berlin. The Treaty of Berlin signed an agreement on mutual guarantees between Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary. The contract was concluded for 3 years and extended on March 15 (27), 1884 for another 3 years.

The significance of the treaty was undermined by the aggravation of Austro-Russian relations in 1885-1886 due to the issue of Bulgaria's foreign policy orientation and the Serbian-Bulgarian war. The "Union of Three Emperors" finally collapsed, after which in 1887 a Russian-German reinsurance agreement was concluded.

The collapse of the alliance of the three emperors. From the very beginning of the Bulgarian crisis, the British government sought drag Austria and Germany into conflict over Russia. Bismarck, for his part, worked no less diligently to provoke Anglo-Russian clash and yet remain aloof.

Soon after Salisbury replaced Gladstone in power in 1885, he sent his secretary F. Kerry to Bismarck on a special mission. Its purpose was to push Germany to fight against Russia. However, this did not at all enter into the calculations of Bismarck, who, for his part, always sought to complicate Anglo-Russian relations. Bismarck replied to the British government that "England can by no means count on an alliance with Germany against Russia." As Bismarck repeatedly expressed, he did not want the Germans to carry chestnuts for England from Russian fire. He believed that the more passive Germany was in the eastern question, the greater the chance that the British would decide themselves to oppose Russia, side by side with Austria-Hungary. Thus, the Anglo-Russian conflict, so desired by the German Chancellor, would be evident. The Chancellor insistently urged the Austrians not to quarrel with Russia until they had absolute confidence that England would not evade the fight either. At the same time, Bismarck tirelessly insisted that Austria-Hungary should not count on Germany's support in the war over Bulgaria: after all, the 1879 treaty only applies in the event of a direct Russian attack on Austro-Hungarian territory. “If England does not lead the way,” Bismarck wrote on another occasion, “Austria will be stupid if she counts on her. If Randolph Churchill is afraid to come out together with Austria and Turkey, then why should Austria alone grab the cat by the tail? To then be abandoned by England? The following note by Bismarck clearly defines the essence of the policy of the German Chancellor: “We must strive to keep our hands free, so that in case it comes to a break with Russia over Eastern questions, we will not be immediately drawn into the conflict, since all our forces we will need against France. If we remain neutral in the war of Austria and her allies against Russia, then we can avoid war with France, since the latter cannot start a war until we are drawn into the struggle with Russia ... If we stick to the line outlined here, Bismarck continues , then it is highly probable that the two wars that threaten Europe may take place separately from one another. Thus, Bismarck clearly articulates his goals: to avoid a war on two fronts and to provide conditions for the localization of future wars.

From the autumn of 1886, as deterioration of Austro-Russian relations, Bismarck begins to work vigorously to establish Anglo-Austrian cooperation. He seeks to bind England with the firmest possible obligations to Austria, and also to Italy, in the event of joint action against Russia, and partly against France.

It may seem that Bismarck has made a turn in his policy towards an open anti-Russian course. However, this would be a simplistic and misunderstanding of his policies. Bismarck's diplomacy was very complex: the chancellor simultaneously made maneuvers in different directions.

Back in mid-October 1886, Bismarck persistently warned Shuvalov against the occupation of Bulgaria. But on November 21, 1886, the tsar's brother Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich arrived in Berlin. During this visit, the chancellor's son, who by that time had become secretary of state of the department of foreign affairs, in a long conversation with the Grand Duke denied everything that he himself and his father had recently said to Shuvalov, warning against sending Russian troops to Bulgaria.

What made the chancellor return to his spring position? The fact is that in October Bismarck learned about the improvement of Franco-Russian relations. And on November 5, 1886, French Premier Freycinet told the German ambassador that Russia had offered France an alliance against Germany. In fact, it was not the Russian government that was talking about an alliance, but Katkov's agents who came to Paris. But Bismarck took Freycinet's message at face value. This is not surprising, given that there was a strong current in Russia in favor of a Franco-Russian rapprochement.

It was in this situation that Bismarck undertook one of the most difficult maneuvers in the history of diplomacy. On the one hand, he does not skimp on Russia's advances and pushes her towards military intervention in Bulgaria. On the other hand, it restrains Austria in its opposition to Russia. At the same time, the chancellor is working to intensify British policy and seeks to cause an Anglo-Russian conflict, being ready in this case to let Austria-Hungary off the chain, on which he firmly decided to keep it until the action of England follows. However, for Germany, Bismarck was determined even in this case to leave his hands free and maintain "friendly" relations with Russia.

This was not the end of the most complicated game played by Bismarck. Simultaneously with the maneuvers in the field of Anglo-Austrian-Russian relations, the German Chancellor brought the newspaper campaign against France to the extreme degree of excitement.

This campaign was of great importance for Bismarck from the point of view of domestic policy. The exceptional law passed by the chancellor against the socialists did not give the expected results. Elections in 1881 and 1884 turned out to be extremely unsuccessful for Bismarck. The center party behaved too independently. In addition, the emperor was decrepit, and a change of monarch was imminent. Finally, the law on the approval of the military budget for a seven-year period (septennat) and a significant strengthening of the army were to be renewed. The chancellor was interested in causing an explosion of chauvinism in the country. He has used this method successfully more than once. Therefore, his press picked up and exorbitantly inflated all the facts of revanchist propaganda. And the French nationalists, with their antics, themselves helped ensure that the anti-French campaign of the German chancellor did not go without food.

Military alert in January 1887 Starting from the end of October, diligently wooing Russia, Bismarck achieved a certain success: the deception was successful, although not for long, at the end of 1886 Alexander III himself for some time was imbued with confidence in the turn in German politics. “Now it is really clear,” said the tsar, “that Germany is at one with us in the Bulgarian question.” The tsar was especially concerned about one, in fact, rather petty, question: lest Battenberg, hated by him, return to Bulgaria. This would be a personal insult for Alexander III. Count Pyotr Shuvalov, who was about to go to Berlin on his private business, was instructed to discuss this issue with the German Chancellor; it was necessary that the Kaiser forbade Battenberg, as an officer in the German service, from returning to the Bulgarian throne.

Pyotr Shuvalov, like his brother Pavel, who since 1885 took up the post of ambassador in Berlin, was a longtime supporter of close friendship with Germany. Bismarck had him persona grata. When Pyotr Shuvalov arrived in Berlin, he and his brother first talked with the chancellor's son, Count Herbert Bismarck. He promised that his father would assist the king in the Battenberg case. Following that, the Shuvalov brothers, on their own initiative, turned to the question of the future fate of the union of the three emperors: the term of the contract of 1884 expired in the coming summer. Pyotr Shuvalov invited Herbert Bismarck to renew the treaty without Austria; Russia's relations with this power have already deteriorated too much after the events of last autumn. The dual Russian-German treaty was to be built on the following basis: Russia guarantees Germany its neutrality in the event of a Franco-German war. “At the same time,” Shuvalov said, “it doesn’t matter whether France attacks Germany, or whether you start a war against her and impose 14 billion indemnities on her, or even plant a Prussian general as the Parisian governor.” Shuvalov's proposal was so bold under the conditions of the 80s that Bismarck himself, reading his son's report, put a question mark in the margin. In exchange, Shuvalov asked Germany for an obligation that she would not prevent Russia from seizing the straits and restoring Russian influence in Bulgaria. “With great pleasure,” the chancellor noted on Herbert's report.

A few days later, the Shuvalov brothers and Bismarck, sitting over a bottle of champagne, drew up a draft treaty on the basis just outlined. However, some more important points were added; They obligated Russia "to do nothing against the territorial integrity of Austria-Hungary" and recognized Serbia as a sphere of Austrian influence .

Bismarck was delighted with the conversations with Shuvalov. The next day, January 11, 1887, the Chancellor was to make a big speech in the Reichstag. The whole political world was waiting for this speech. Bismarck spoke very boldly. There were two main ideas in his speech: friendship with Russia and enmity with France. "The friendship of Russia is more important for us than the friendship of Bulgaria and than the friendship of all Bulgaria's friends in our country," the chancellor said. Bismarck spoke about the possibility of a war with France in the sense that no one can know when this war will come: maybe in 10 years, and maybe in 10 days.

These days the German diplomatic representatives in Constantinople and Sofia received orders from Berlin to support Russian policy in the most energetic way in the Bulgarian question. At the same time, Bismarck stepped up diplomatic pressure on the Western European international front. On January 13, 1887, he asked the Belgian government whether it was taking measures (and what kind) to ensure its neutrality in the event of an allegedly possible French invasion of Belgium. On January 22, the charge d'affaires in Paris was ordered to urgently provide information on French military preparations. The chancellor, as he stated in his letter, "is concerned with the question of whether the attention of the French government should not be drawn to the fact that its military preparations make it doubt its peacefulness."

Brought by Shuvalov to Petersburg the fruit of his personal diplomacy did not meet with approval even from such a Germanophile as Giers. The minister found that Shuvalov was cheap by promising Bismarck a guarantee of the integrity of Austria and its predominance in Serbia. The tsar himself reacted to Shuvalov's project even more incredulously. On January 17, at a report to the tsar, Girs was convinced to his horror that the entire policy of German orientation pursued by him was in question. The closest employee of Giers Lamzdorf wrote in his diary that day: “Apparently, the intrigues of Katkov or some other harmful influences again led our sovereign astray. His Majesty speaks out not only against a tripartite alliance (with the participation of Austria-Hungary), but even against an alliance with Germany. He allegedly knows that this union is unpopular and runs counter to the national feelings of all of Russia; he confesses that he is afraid not to reckon with these feelings, etc.” By order of the tsar, Girs ordered Pavel Shuvalov for the time being to completely refrain from talking with Bismarck about concluding a Russo-German treaty.

In the first days of February it finally became quite clear to Bismarck that Shuvalov's project did not meet with the approval of the king and that, consequently, Russia's support cannot be counted on. Under such conditions, Bismarck had only one thing left - abandon the plan to attack France.

On January 26, the ambassador in St. Petersburg Labule, on his own initiative, turned to Girs with the question "whether Russia will provide moral support to his homeland, whether it will advance its troops to the border of Prussia and whether it is bound by any obligations towards Germany." Gire replied that Russia was not bound by any obligations (which was not entirely accurate) and therefore had freedom of action. "And you will allow me to keep it," he added rather abruptly, "without assuming any obligation to you." Surprising as it may seem, the Russian minister's discouraging reply made Flourance extremely happy. Giers' statement relieved him of the need to continue negotiations with Russia, which could further irritate the German chancellor.

reinsurance contract. By the time the Anglo-Italian negotiations were completed, Bismarck was already quite clear that Shuvalov's project had failed. But, having convinced himself of this, the chancellor still did not lose hope of reaching an agreement with Russia in order to ensure its neutrality in the event of a war with France. To achieve this, from mid-February he began to harm Russia wherever he could; in this way he hoped to convince the tsar of the benefits of German "friendship". Causing Russia many major and minor troubles, Bismarck at the same time kept talking to her about an agreement.

Nevertheless, Bismarck's efforts were not in vain: in April 1887, the tsar finally agreed to resume negotiations with Germany on replacing the expiring treaty of the three emperors with a dual Russian-German agreement. Negotiations began in Berlin between Pavel Shuvalov and Bismarck. On May 11, 1887, Shuvalov gave Bismarck a Russian draft treaty between the two powers. The first article of this draft read: "In the event that one of the high contracting parties finds itself in a state of war with a third great power, the other will maintain benevolent neutrality towards it." Around this article, the most heated debate unfolded. After listening to the Russian project, Bismarck made a few relatively minor remarks, and then, as Shuvalov relates, “the chancellor turned to his favorite topic: he again began to talk about Constantinople, about the straits, etc., etc. He repeated to me, - Shuvalov reported, “that Germany would be very happy if we settle down there and, as he put it, get the key to our house in our hands.” In a word, Bismarck, according to his custom, traded in other people's goods. He suggested that Shuvalov draw up a separate, highly secret article containing Germany's consent to the seizure of the straits by the tsarist government. “This is an agreement,” remarked the Chancellor, “of such a kind that it should be hidden under a double bottom.”

Believing that he had done his best to seduce the Russian government into making concessions, Bismarck moved on to the most important thing. He took the briefcase, took out some paper from it and read the text to the astonished Shuvalov Austro-German alliance. At the same time, Bismarck expressed "regret" that the situation in 1879 forced him to conclude such an agreement. Now he is already bound and, therefore, must insist that one case be excluded from the future Russo-German neutrality treaty, namely, when Russia attacks Austria. Shuvalov began to object, but the lack of time forced him to interrupt the conversation.

We met again two days later. Shuvalov renewed his objections; Bismarck also stood his ground. Then, on May 17, Shuvalov proposed to the chancellor to add the following clause to the lines on limiting German obligations in the event of a war between Russia and Austria: "and for Russia, the case of a German attack on France is excluded." The meaning of this addition was very clear and simple. It boiled down to the following: You do not want to let us defeat Austria if necessary. Fine. But keep in mind that we do not allow you to beat France. Promising our neutrality in the event of her attack on you, we will only restrain her own aggressive designs, just as you promise to do this against your ally Austria. Bismarck was extremely dissatisfied, but Shuvalov turned out to be as firm as he himself. Many different editions have been tried. Finally, they agreed on the following text of Article 1 of the treaty: “If one of the high contracting parties finds itself in a state of war with a third great power, the other side will maintain benevolent neutrality towards the first and make every effort to localize the conflict. This obligation does not apply to a war against Austria or France, in the event that such a war breaks out as a result of an attack on one of these powers by one of the high contracting parties.

This was stated in Article 1. Article 2 dealt with the Balkan question:

“Germany recognizes the rights historically acquired by Russia in the Balkan Peninsula, and especially the legitimacy of her prevailing and decisive influence in Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia. Both courts undertake not to allow any change in the territorial status quo of the said peninsula without first agreeing among themselves.

Article 3 reproduced the article of the 1881 treaty regarding the closure of the straits.

A special protocol was attached to the agreement. In it, Germany undertook to provide Russia with diplomatic assistance if the Russian emperor finds it necessary to "assume the protection of the entrance to the Black Sea" in order to "preserve the key to his empire." Germany also promised never to give consent to the restoration of the Prince of Battenberg on the Bulgarian throne. The agreement, together with the protocol, was signed by Shuvalov and Bismarck on June 18, 1887. It was called the reinsurance agreement: having insured itself against Russia and France with the help of alliances with Austria-Hungary and Italy, Bismarck was now, as it were, reinsured through an agreement with Russia.

Promising Russia, according to the new Russian-German treaty, his neutrality in the event of an attack on her by Austria, Bismarck, on the other hand, back in 1879 guaranteed military assistance to Austria in the event of an attack on her by Russia. It should be noted that none of these treaties contained a definition of what should be considered an "attack". The decision of the question of who attacked whom, Bismarck left to himself, offering to rely on his "loyalty". It is clear that in this way he created for himself an instrument for putting pressure on both Russia and Austria.

The complexity of the situation was aggravated by the fact that since 1883 there was an Austro-Romanian alliance, by virtue of which Austria had to provide military assistance to Romania in the event of an attack by Russia. Germany joined this treaty immediately after its signing. Thus, she was obliged to declare war on Russia in the event of a war between Russia and Romania. Meanwhile, under the new Russian-German treaty, Germany pledged to Russia to observe neutrality in such a case. The situation was such that it could baffle even the most sophisticated diplomat. But Bismarck was not embarrassed by it. He quickly got out of the situation, casually remarking that Germany would not have had a large number of troops for Romania anyway. In 1888, Bismarck renewed the treaty with Rumania, not in the least embarrassed by the fact that he already had a conflicting agreement with Russia.

Much more disturbing to Bismarck was the insufficiency of Russian commitments in the event of a war with France. From this point of view, the agreement with Russia did not satisfy the German Chancellor. Soon after the signing of the treaty, he decided to set in motion all the levers to put pressure on Russia.

Bismarck began by refusing to help Russia when she wanted to prevent the election of an unacceptable Austrian protege, Prince Ferdinand of Coburg, to the Bulgarian throne. Then, with the assistance of Bismarck, on December 12, 1887, a new Anglo-Austro-Italian agreement was concluded: it clarified the line outlined by the agreement of February 12 - March 24. The means of economic pressure promised to be even more effective. The German press launched a campaign against the Russian loan. Bismarck issued a decree forbidding government agencies to place money in Russian papers; He forbade the Reichsbank to accept these papers as collateral. The Russian government did not even have to think about a new loan in Berlin. Finally, at the end of 1887, an increase in duties on bread was carried out in Germany.

Deterioration of Russian-German relations. The result of all the measures taken by Bismarck against Russia was a sharp deterioration in Russian-German relations. It coincided with an even more acute crisis in Russia's relations with Austria-Hungary.

The reason for this crisis was the energetic support that Austria-Hungary provided to the new Bulgarian prince, while Russia stubbornly evaded his recognition, considering him a usurper. In the fall, Kalnoki sharply criticized Russian policy in a public speech. The Russian government, in turn, adopted a threatening tone towards Austria. All this was accompanied by a noisy newspaper squabble.

These events were given particular seriousness by the fact that in Russia they coincided with the transfer of several military units to the Austrian border. In fact, this transfer was part of a large plan to change the deployment of the Russian army, which was developed a long time ago, even before the Russo-Turkish war. The new transfers of troops at the end of 1887, therefore, contained absolutely nothing immediately threatening. But in the tense atmosphere of 1887, the Austrians were very frightened by these Russian military measures. For its part, Russian diplomacy (and even Gire) did not dispel these fears, hoping to use them to put pressure on Austria on the question of the fate of the Bulgarian princely throne.

To top it all off, in the fall, during the stay of Alexander III in Copenhagen with his wife's parents, documents were handed over to the tsar, from which it was clear that Bismarck actively supported Prince Ferdinand.

On his way back from Copenhagen, the Tsar stopped by Berlin. Bismarck met him in a very peculiar way. The day before Alexander's arrival, he issued the above-mentioned decree forbidding the pawning of Russian papers in the Reichsbank. And then, showing his claws in this way, in a personal meeting, the chancellor, with all his eloquence, tried to convince the king that Germany was not at all interested in supporting Ferdinand of Coburg. Under the atom, of course, Bismarck proved the forgery of the documents handed over to the tsar.

Moltke and his assistant, Quartermaster General Waldersee, citing Russian military preparations, demanded a preventive war against her. They pointed to the superiority of Germany in terms of combat readiness and reminded that the balance of power could soon change. But no matter how much Bismarck hated Russia, he, nevertheless, did not want a war against her. He foresaw the extraordinary difficulties of this war. He knew that it would inevitably be complicated by the intervention of France, and he understood all the hardships of a war on two fronts. The chancellor intimidated Russia, but resolutely opposed the warlike plans of the German General Staff.

By the end of December, the Russian government realized that threats against Austria would not give it anything. But Bismarck, in turn, was convinced that he would not achieve the goals that he set for himself, and would only completely spoil Russian-German relations. Then the Chancellor changed front. He helped the tsar to receive purely demonstrative satisfaction, having obtained from the sultan, as the suzerain of Bulgaria, a proclamation on the illegality of the election of Ferdinand. The latter, however, remained on the throne, although he was not recognized de jure. After that, the political atmosphere somewhat relaxed. But the state of Europe resembled a severe hangover. Bismarck failed to direct Russian politics into the political channel he needed. By his pressure on Russia, Bismarck achieved results directly opposite to those he aspired to: with his own hand he laid the foundation of the very Franco-Russian alliance, to the prevention of which, after 1871, he devoted his efforts for so many years after 1871.

Money denied in Berlin was found by the tsarist government in Paris. In 1887, the first Russian loans were concluded in France, and in 1888-1889. a huge financial transaction was carried out on the Parisian money market to convert the Russian state debt. Since then, one loan has followed another. French capital became the main creditor of tsarism. Soon tsarist Russia became the most important area for the export of French capital. Subsequent events showed what an important political tool these loans were in France's relations with Tsarist Russia.

After the events of 1887, the pro-German clique of Ferdinand of Coburg drew Bulgaria into the orbit of Austro-German politics. But neither the mistakes of the tsarist policy, nor the criminal activities of the Bulgarian ruling clique could weaken the feeling of solidarity that binds the Bulgarians with their liberators - the Russians. This feeling remained the most important political factor, which the diplomacy of the Coburg camarilla had to reckon with in one way or another.

One of the results of the deterioration of Russian-German and Franco-German relations was that Bismarck suspended German colonial expansion. It became dangerous to quarrel with England again. Since 1886, Bismarck has made no new colonial conquests, except for some expansion of previously acquired colonies. In 1889 Bismarck invited Salisbury to conclude an alliance against France. To this he was refused.

The resignation of Bismarck. By the time of negotiations with England in 1889, Bismarck's position was shaken. In March 1888 Wilhelm I died, and three months later his son Frederick III also died. Wilhelm II ascended the throne. Narcissistic, fussy, lover of theatrical poses and pompous speeches, always striving to play a spectacular role, the young Kaiser soon quarreled with the imperious old chancellor, who did not tolerate interference in his politics. There were serious disagreements between the Chancellor and the Kaiser on the question of their attitude towards Russia. General Waldersee, who replaced the decrepit Moltke in 1888, continued to insist on a preventive war against Russia; the young Kaiser leaned towards this point of view. Bismarck, as always, considered the war against Russia disastrous.

Due to a number of circumstances, mainly domestic politics, in March 1890, Bismarck was forced to resign after 28 years as head of government, first of Prussia, and then of the German Empire. This happened at the moment when between him and Shuvalov already negotiations began on the renewal of the reinsurance contract, which expired in June 1890.

The new chancellor, General Caprivi, was infected with the mood of the General Staff. He believed that it was impossible to avoid a war with Russia and that an agreement with her was therefore useless. Such were the views of Baron Holstein, adviser to the Foreign Office. This official, modest in rank, began his career as a Bismarckian spy for his immediate superior, the ambassador to Paris, Count Arnim. Holstein is said to have eavesdropped on Arnim's conversations while lying under a large sofa in the embassy's waiting room. Holstein was ostracized by the Berlin high society, but he held on tight thanks to the all-powerful Chancellor. This did not prevent the same Holstein from taking a lively part in the intrigues against Bismarck, in the expectation that after the departure of the chancellor, the actual leadership of the foreign policy of the German Empire would pass to him. Golshtein was not mistaken. Caprivi knew little about diplomacy. The new secretary of state, Marshall von Bieberstein, was not particularly experienced in it either. Meanwhile, Holstein knew all the affairs perfectly, was extremely able-bodied, and soon took over all German diplomacy. Holstein shied away from any open speech: he knew how to act only in the bowels of his office. The main feature of his character was extreme suspicion. It gave Holstein eternal, often fantastic, doubts and fears: often in his political calculations he proceeded from completely chimerical positions. After the resignation of Bismarck, Holstein imagined that the renewal of the reinsurance treaty was extremely dangerous: with worsened relations, the Russian government could use this document to show it to the Austrians and blow up the Tripartite Alliance. It was pure fantasy. No one was so afraid of divulging the secret of this treaty as Tsar Alexander III, who was extremely reckoning with Katkov circles. Be that as it may, Holstein, Marshall and Caprivi decided that the treaties should not be renewed.

Bismarck's diplomacy set itself the task of preventing an unbearable war on two fronts. Caprivi diplomacy considered this task impossible. It proceeded from the premise that Germany must prepare for war against the Franco-Russian bloc.

For the preparation to be successful, it was necessary to create a grouping that would be superior in strength to Russia and France taken together. The key to solving the problem was in the hands of England. Its accession to the Triple Alliance would give it unconditional superiority over the Franco-Russian group. It would ensure the loyalty of Italy, whose open coast did not allow her to go against England - this mistress of the seas. It would help to attract Turkey to the side of the Triple Alliance.

The rapprochement was initiated by an agreement concluded between Germany and England in the summer of 1890. Germany ceded to England a number of important territories in Africa, primarily Uganda, which opened up access to the upper reaches of the Nile. She also agreed to a British protectorate over Zanzibar, the center of East African trade. In exchange, England ceded Heligoland to Germany. Its strategic importance was enormous. Heligoland is the key to the German North Sea coast. The British in those years underestimated the importance of this position.

However, despite the successful start of the Anglo-German rapprochement, Caprivi's hopes for England did not materialize. The British government stubbornly rejected the repeated offers to join the Triple Alliance, which were made by Caprivi during his chancellorship (from 1890 to 1894).

Bismarck as a diplomat.With the departure of Bismarck, the largest stage in the history of German diplomacy ended. Bismarck was undoubtedly the only outstanding diplomat of the German Empire. He was a representative of the Prussian Junkers and the German bourgeoisie during the struggle for the national unification of Germany, and then for the strengthening of the state he created. He lived and acted in an epoch when imperialism was far from taking shape. The problems of colonial policy were not in the foreground for Bismarck. He did not even think about creating a powerful German fleet. The isolation of France was the main task of the diplomacy of the first German chancellor, and he would consider his highest achievement a new localized war against France - if only he could achieve strong guarantees against the intervention of third powers. Such a war would turn Germany into the hegemon of Western Europe.

A distinctive feature of Bismarck's diplomacy was its militant and violent nature; in this sense the chancellor was head to toe the representative of the Prussian military state. To Bismarck, Nicholson's definition that "German politics is basically power politics" fully applies. When Bismarck saw the enemy in front of him, the first move of the chancellor was to find his most vulnerable places in order to hit them as hard as possible. Pressure and blow were for Bismarck a means not only to defeat the enemy, but also to get friends for himself. To ensure the loyalty of an ally, Bismarck always kept a stone in his bosom against him. If a suitable stone was not at his disposal, he tried to intimidate his friends with all sorts of imaginary troubles that he supposedly could cause them.

If pressure did not help, or for all his ingenuity, Bismarck could not find any means of pressure or blackmail, he turned to his other favorite technique - bribery, most often at someone else's expense. Gradually, he developed a kind of standard of bribes. He bought the English by assisting in Egyptian financial affairs; Russians - by providing assistance or freedom of action in one or another of the Eastern problems; the French - support in the capture of a wide variety of colonial territories. Bismarck's arsenal of such "gifts" was quite large.

Bismarck was less willing to use such a diplomatic device as a compromise, which is so rich in the annals of the diplomacy of the Anglo-Saxon countries. Of course, during the long diplomatic career of the chancellor, there are many compromises; suffice it to recall at least the negotiations with Shuvalov on the formula of neutrality in the reinsurance contract. But in general it was not his style.

Bismarck was a great realist. He liked, when necessary, to talk about monarchist solidarity. However, this did not prevent him from supporting the Republicans in France, and in 1873 in Spain, as opposed to the monarchists, since he then believed that the republican governments in these countries would be the most convenient from the point of view of the interests of the German Empire.

Bismarck did not give scope to feelings in his politics: he always tried to be guided solely by calculation. If any feeling sometimes broke into his logic, then most often it was anger. Anger and hatred were, perhaps, the only emotions that could sometimes divert the chancellor from the path of cold and sober calculation for a while.

Bismarck believed that any treachery is appropriate in politics, any vileness is permissible. The example of the Russo-German treaty shows that it cost nothing for Bismarck to sign two incompatible obligations: the loyal fulfillment of one of them excluded the fulfillment of the other. The Ems dispatch does not exhaust the list of provocations he committed. In fact, during his entire chancellorship, he was engaged in continuous provocation of Russian-Turkish, Anglo-Russian or Franco-English conflicts.

Another feature of Bismarck's diplomacy was exceptional activity. Bismarck was an energetic, extremely active person who literally did not know peace. His mind was constantly and tirelessly working on the search for ever new diplomatic combinations.

Reading Bismarck's reports to the emperor, his instructions to the ambassadors, and the notes that he sometimes dictated to himself or to clarify his views to his closest collaborators, one cannot but be amazed at how many aspects of the international situation are covered and connected with each other in these documents. An infinitely complex and at the same time an integral and thoughtful political concept unfolds before the reader. Strange, but from the pen of this political businessman, lines sometimes came out that, by their nature, are more reminiscent of an in-depth theoretical analysis of the international situation or a serious journal article than an official document. If Bismarck's analysis of the international situation is striking in its complexity, then the practical conclusions that Bismarck drew from this analysis are no less amazing in the variety of planned diplomatic combinations. Simplicity did not belong to the characteristics of Bismarckian politics, despite the fact that its goal was usually expressed with the utmost clarity.

Bismarck almost always clearly knew what he wanted, and was able to develop an amazing volitional effort to achieve his goal. He walked, but he sometimes went straight ahead to her, but more often - complex, sometimes confusing, dark, always varied and restless ways.

After the World War, German historians, tirelessly falsifying history, often portrayed Bismarck as an infallible politician. He was not, of course. The list of his mistakes is not so small. But, nevertheless, he was the largest diplomat in Germany. If we compare him with the leaders of the next generation, with those who led the policy of Germany after his resignation, then he may indeed seem to be an "inaccessible" and "infallible" politician.

Bismarck is sometimes portrayed as almost a friend of Russia. This is not true. He was her enemy, for he saw in her the main obstacle to German hegemony in Europe. Bismarck always tried to harm Russia. He sought to draw her into conflicts with England and Turkey. But the chancellor was smart enough to understand what a huge power lurks in the Russian people. Bismarck saw that tsarist power was fettering the mighty forces of Russia, and this was one of the reasons why he preferred tsarist autocracy to any other Russian regime. Harming Russia in every possible way, Bismarck tried to do it by proxy. The lines devoted by Bismarck to the problem of the Russian-German war sound like a terrible warning. “This war with the gigantic size of its theater would be full of dangers,” said Bismarck. “The examples of Charles XII and Napoleon prove that the most capable commanders only with difficulty extricate themselves from an expedition to Russia.” And Bismarck believed that a war with Russia would be a "great disaster" for Germany. Even if military happiness smiled at Germany in the fight against Russia, then even then "geographical conditions would make it infinitely difficult to bring this success to the end."

But Bismarck went further. He was not only aware of the difficulties of the war with Russia. He believed that even if, contrary to expectations, Germany managed to achieve complete success in the purely military sense of the word, then even then she would not have achieved a real political victory over Russia, because the Russian people cannot be defeated. Arguing with supporters of an attack on Russia, Bismarck wrote in 1888: “This could be argued if such a war could really lead to the fact that Russia would be defeated. But such a result, even after the most brilliant victories, is beyond all probability. Even the most favorable outcome of the war will never lead to the disintegration of the main force of Russia, which is based on millions of Russians themselves ... These latter, even if they are dissected by international treatises, will just as quickly reunite with each other, like particles of a cut piece of mercury. This is the indestructible state of the Russian nation, strong in its climate, its spaces and its limited needs...”.

These lines by no means testify to the chancellor's sympathies for Russia. They talk about something else: the old predator was cautious and vigilant.

Franco-Russian Union (1891 - 1893). The Russian government without delay drew its conclusions from the refusal of the Caprivi government to renew the reinsurance contract and from Germany's attempts to draw closer to England. From now on, France was to become not only a creditor, but also an ally of the Russian Empire. Giret, however, to the best of his ability, hindered the rapprochement with France. When, in the spring of 1891, the French government, having recovered from the fright that seized it in 1887, raised the question of an alliance in St. Petersburg, it at first received an evasive answer. The tsarist government soon had to regret this: the Parisian Rothschild immediately refused him another loan, suddenly remembering the fate of his fellow Jews in the Russian Empire.

France needed a military alliance more than Russia. At the same time, it could use the financial dependence of tsarism on French capital to induce Russia to bind itself to allied obligations. However, one should not see in this dependence the only basis of the Franco-Russian alliance. Although not as strong as France, the tsarist government was also afraid of remaining isolated in the face of Germany. It became especially alarmed after the renewal of the Triple Alliance took place on May 6, 1891, accompanied by demonstrations of friendship between its participants and England.

In July 1891 the French fleet arrived on a visit to Kronstadt; at the meeting of the squadron, Tsar Alexander III listened to the Marseillaise with his head uncovered. It was an unprecedented sight: the autocrat of all Russia bared his head at the sound of the revolutionary anthem.

Simultaneously with the Kronstadt demonstration, a Franco-Russian consultative pact was concluded (the term itself, however, was not yet used at that time). The pact was given a rather complicated form. On August 21, 1891, Giret sent a letter to the Russian ambassador in Paris, Morenheim, to be passed on to the French Foreign Minister Ribot. The letter began with an indication of the reasons that promptly led to the conclusion of the Franco-Russian agreement. Gire pointed to "the situation created in Europe by the open renewal of the Triple Alliance and the more or less likely accession of Great Britain to the political aims pursued by this alliance." The letter further stated that “in the event that the world were really in danger, and especially in the event that one of the two sides was under the threat of attack, both sides agree to agree on measures, the immediate and simultaneous implementation of which will be in in the event of the aforementioned events, urgent for both governments. On August 27, Ribot replied with a letter addressed to Morenheim. In it, he confirmed the agreement of the French government with all the provisions of Girs and, in addition, raised the question of negotiations that would clarify in advance the nature of the "measures" provided for by this agreement. In essence, Ribot proposed the conclusion of a military convention. In the summer of 1892, the Deputy Chief of the French General Staff arrived in St. Petersburg. During his stay in the Russian capital, the military convention was previously signed by representatives of the general staffs. After that, by order of the king, its text was sent for political approbation to the Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Gire felt that the exchange of last year's letters of mutual consultation was sufficient. He shelved the draft convention. Matters remained in this state until December 1893. The Panama scandal, which created some instability in the internal situation of France, helped Girs to slow down the formalization of the military convention.

The German government helped move the Franco-Russian rapprochement off the ground. It committed new hostile acts against Russia. In an effort to win over the Russian market for its industry, it was clearly leaning towards a customs war. In 1893 such a war finally broke out. The customs war was supposed to contribute to the economic enslavement of Russia by German capital. In the same year, a law was passed in Germany on a new significant strengthening of the army. As a result, in 1893 the Russian squadron defiantly gave a visit to the French fleet in Toulon. On December 27, 1893, Giret was forced to inform the French that Alexander III had approved the draft Franco-Russian military convention.

Article 1 of the convention stated:

“If France is attacked by Germany or Italy supported by Germany, Russia will use all her available forces to attack Germany.

If Russia is attacked by Germany or Austria supported by Germany, France will use all her available forces to attack Germany.

Article 2 established that "in the event of the mobilization of the forces of the Triple Alliance or one of its constituent powers, France and Russia, upon receipt of this news and without waiting for any prior agreement, mobilize immediately and simultaneously all their forces and move them as close as possible to their borders." Further, the number of troops that would be moved by Russia and France against Germany as the strongest member of the hostile group was determined. The French really wanted Russia to send fewer forces to the Austrian front. For the French, it was very important that the largest possible number of Russian troops be thrown against Germany. This would force the German command to transfer its troops to the east from the French front. With the approbation of the military convention, the Franco-Russian alliance was finally formalized.

The German government was reaping the fruits of its alienation from Russia. It paid a terrible price for the short-sightedness and arrogance of its diplomacy: the Franco-Russian alliance was the reckoning. Although the agreements of 1891 and 1893 and remained strictly secret, but Kronstadt and Toulon spoke quite clearly about what was going on behind the scenes. Germany complicated relations with Russia, but did not achieve an alliance with England in return.

The German government tried to correct its mistake and get closer to Russia again. In 1894, the customs war ended with the conclusion of a Russian-German trade agreement. This partly opened the way for the normalization of political relations.

The need to restore inadvertently broken normal relations with Russia was all the stronger because the influential capitalist circles in Germany were increasingly demanding the acquisition of vast colonies; this meant that German foreign policy had to take an anti-English path. The danger of simultaneous alienation from both Russia and England was too obvious. The disgraced Bismarck also agitated for the restoration of former relations with Russia: he launched an energetic struggle against the government of Wilhelm II. But the Franco-Russian alliance has already become a fact; Germany could not eliminate him.